Case concerning the Air Service Agreement of 27 March 1946 between the United States of America and France
Decision of 9 December 1978
Characterization of questions of facts and issues of law—Application of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies in cases of diplomatic protection distinguished from application of the rule in cases of direct injury to States intei se—The relevance of draft Article 22 of the International Law Commission on State responsibility in the determination of the nature ot the local remedies rule—Affirmation of the principle that a treaty must be read as a whole and that its meaning is not to be determined mainly upon particular phrases which, it detached trom the text, may be interpreted in more than one sense—Interpretation ot the concept ot “continuous service” for the purposes of determining permitted and prohibited change of gauge (size ot aircraft) in a designated air service route—Consideration of the fifth-freedom rights in relation to the question of change ot gauge—The relevance of the Convention on International Civil Aviation convened at Chicago 7 December 1944 in the application of the concept of “freedom of the air” as opposed to the concept of national sovereignty of a State over the air space above its territory in the determination of the right of change of gauge in third-party States—The relevance of the formula on the change ot gauge contained in the 1946 Bermuda Agreement between the United States and the United Kingdom—The weight to be given to the evidence of the practice of the parties to a treaty in interpretation of the treaty—Consideration of the concept of “counter-measures” and the related rule of “proportionality”—The proper content of the requirement to negotiate, the duty not to aggravate a dispute, and the related question of interim measures of protection.
Arbitral Award
Mr. Willem Riphagen, President;
Mr. Thomas Ehrlich, M. Paul Reuter, Arbitrators;
Mr. Lucius Caflisch, Registrar.
In the case concerning the Air Services Agreement of 27 March 1946 between The United States of America, represented by:
Mr. Lee R. Marks, Deputy Legal Adviser, Department of State, as Agent; and Ms. Judith Hippler Bello, Department of State, Ms. Lori Fisler Damrosch, Department of State, as Deputy-Agents; assisted by: Mr. James R. Atwood, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Transportation Affairs, Department of State, Mr. William A. Kutzke, Assistant General Counsel, International Law, Department of Transportation, Mr. Peter B. Schwarzkopf, Assistant General Counsel, International Affairs, Civil Aeronautics Board, as Advisers; Mr. Norman P. Seagrave, Pan American World Airways, Inc., as Expert-Adviser; Mrs. Cozetta B. Johnson, Department of State, as Secretary;
And The French Republic, represented by:
M. Guy Ladreit de Lacharriere, Minister Plenipotentiary, Director of
Legal Affairs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Agent; M. Noel Mu- seux, Magistrate, Deputy-Director of Legal Affairs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, M. Henry Cuny, Secretary in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Office of the Director of Legal Affairs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as Deputy-Agents; assisted by: M. Gilbert Guillaume, Maitre des requetes, Conseil d’Etat, M. Michel Virally, Professor of the Faculties of Law, University of Paris, M. Emmanuel du Pontavice, Professor of the Faculties of Law, University of Paris, as Counsel; M. Robert Esperou, Director of Air Transport (Civil Aviation), M. Jean-Baptiste Valle, Head of Department, Air France, as Experts; Mile Solange Challe, as Secretary;
The Tribunal, composed as above, delivers the following Arbitral Award;
By a Compromis of Arbitration signed on 11 July 1978, the text of which is given below, at paragraph 9, the Governments of the United States of America and of the French Republic submitted to the Arbitral Tribunal, composed as above, the following questions:
(A) Does a United States-designated carrier have the right to operate West Coast- Pans service under the Air Services Agreement between the United States and France with a change ol gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey)?
(B) Under the circumstances in question, dtd the Unrted Stales have the right to undertake such action as it undertook under Part 213 of the Civil Aeronautics Board’s Economic Regulations?
The Compromis provided that on Question (A), “the tribunal’s decision . . . shall be binding”, and with respect to Question (B), “the tribunal shall issue an advisory report , . . in accordance with Article X of the Agreement,54 which shall not be binding1‘. It also provided that the Parties were to exchange memorials not later than 18 September 1978, and replies not later than 6 November 1978. It finally specified that oral hearings were to be held at Geneva (Switzerland) on 20 and 21 November 1978.
On 4 September 1978, the French Government appointed M. Guy La- dreit de Lacharriere as its Agent for the case. Mr. Lee R. Marks was appointed as Agent for the United States of America on 18 September 1978.
The Arbitral Tribunal met at Geneva on 17 and 18 November 1978 and, after having consulted the Parties, appointed Mr. Lucius Caflisch as its Registrar. Its inaugural hearing took place on 17 November 1978 in the “Alabama” room of the Geneva City Hall.
The Memorials and Replies having been filed within the prescribed time-limits, the case was ready for hearing on 6 November 1978.
The Arbitral Tribunal held hearings on 20 and 21 November 1978, during which it heard, in the order agreed between the Parties and approved by the Tribunal, the following persons submit oral argument: Mr, Marks on behalf of the Government of the United States of America, M. Ladreit de
Lacharriere, Agent, and MM. Guillaume and Virally, Counsel, on behalf of the Government of the French Republic.
In the course of the oral proceedings, the following final Submissions were made by the Parties:
On behalf of the Government of the United States of America:
On the basis of the Memorial and Reply of the United States, including the Exhibits thereto, and the oral hearings held in Geneva on November 20-21. 1978, including the eight Hearing Exhibits submitted by the United States, the United States respectfully requests the Tribunal to rule as follows:
—On Question A, to answer in the affirmative;
—On Question B. to decline to answer the question, or, in the alternative, to answer in the affirmative.
On behalf of the Government of the French Republic;
May it please the Arbitral Tribunal:
(1) Regarding Question (A),
To adjudge and declare that the Government of the United States was required, before acting on the international level by resorting to arbitration, to wait until the United States company that considers itself injured by the allegedly unlawful act of the French Government had exhausted the remedies open to it under French law; and that, since those remedies have not been exhausted, the Arbitral Tribunal is unable to decide on the question submitted to it;
Subsidiarily,
To adjudge and declare that, for the above-mentioned reasons, the Arbitral Tribunal must postpone its decision on Question (A) until such time as the Pan American World Airways company has either obtained recognition of the rights it claims from the French courts or exhausted the remedies available to it under French law without obtaining satisfaction;
If neither of the above is possible.
To adjudge and declare that a carrier designated by the United States does not have the right, under the Air Services Agreement between France and the United States of Amcnca, to operate a West Coast-Pans service with a change of gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey),
(2) Regarding Question (B),
To adjudge and declare that, under the circumstances in question, the United States Government did not have the right to undertake such action as it undertook undei Part 213 of the Economic Regulations of the Civil Aeronautics Board [1]
The Facts
1. An Exchange of Notes of 5 April 1960 relating to the Air Services Agreement concluded between the United States of America and France on 27 March 1946 authorises air carriers designated by the United States to operate to Paris via London (without traffic rights between London and Paris) services to and from United States West Coast points.[2] A carrier so designated, Pan American World Airways (hereinafter referred to as Pan Am) intermittently operated services over this route until 2 March 1975.
- On 20 February 1978, pursuant to French legislation requiring flight schedules to be filed thirty days in advance, Pan Am informed the competent French authority, the Direction generale de l’Aviation civile (hereinafter referred to as D.G.A.C.), of its plan to resume its West Coast- London-Paris service (without traffic rights between London and Paris) on 1 May 1978 with six weekly flights in each direction. The operation of this service was to involve a change of gauge, in London, from a Boeing 747 aircraft to a smaller Boeing 727 on the outward journey and from a Boeing 727 to a larger Boeing 747 on the return journey.
- On 14 March 1978, the D.G.A.C. refused to approve Pan Am’s plan on the ground that it called for a change of gauge in the territory of a third State and thus was contrary to Section VI of the Annex to the 1946 Air Services Agreement, which deals with changes of gauge in the territory of the Contracting Parties only.[3] The United States Embassy in Paris having, on 22 March 1978, requested the French Foreign Ministry to re-consider the decision of the D.G.A.C., the matter then became the subject of discussions and of diplomatic exchanges between the two Parties, the United States arguing that Pan Am’s proposed change of gauge in London was consistent with the 1946 Air Services Agreement and France contending that it was not and reserving its right to take appropriate measures.
- On 1 and 2 May 1978, when Pan Am operated for the first time its renewed West Coast-London-Paris service with a change of gauge in London, the French police confined themselves to drawing up reports of what they considered to be unlawful flights. Another flight having taken place on 3 May, Pan Am’s Boeing 727 aircraft was surrounded by French police upon arrival at Paris Orly Airport, and its captain was instructed to return to London without having disembarked the passengers or freight. Thereupon Pan Am’s flights were suspended.
- On 4 May, the United States proposed that the issue be submitted to binding arbitration, on the understanding that Pan Am would be permitted to continue its flights pending the arbitral award. On 9 May, the United States Civil Aeronautics Board (hereinafter referred to as C.A.B.) issued a first Order putting into operation phase 1 of Part 213 of its Economic Regulations by requiring the French companies Air France and Union de transports aeriens (U.T.A.) to file, within prescribed time-limits, all their existing flight schedules to and from the United States as well as any new schedules. After having unsuccessfully attempted to have this Order stayed and revised by the C.A.B. or the United States courts, the two companies complied with it on 30 May 1978 by filing their schedules.
- In a Note dated 13 May 1978, the French Embassy in Washington had in the meantime acknowledged Pan Am’s suspension of its flights to Paris and had informed the United States Department of State of France’s agreement “to the principle of recourse to arbitration”. At the same time, the Embassy had objected to the unilateral measure decreed by the Order of the C.A.B. prior to the exhaustion of the means of direct negotiations; it had proposed that such negotiations be held and had noted that French local remedies had not been exhausted; finally, it had warned the Department of State that the pursuit of a course of unilateral measures “would have damaging consequences for the French airline companies and create an additional dispute regarding legality and compensation”.
- On 18 May 1978, Pan Am requested the Administrative Tribunal of Paris to annul as being ultra vires the decision taken by the D.G.A.C. on 14 March 1978 to disapprove Pan Am’s flight schedule. This request is still pending. In a motion filed on 31 May, Pan Am asked that the decision of 14 March 1978 be stayed. This motion was denied on 11 July on the ground that implementation of that decision would not cause irreparable harm.
- In the meantime, on 31 May 1978, the C.A.B. issued a second Order under Part 213 of its Economic Regulations. This Order, which was subject to stay or disapproval by the President of the United States within ten days and which was to be implemented on 12 July, was to prevent Air France from operating its thrice-weekly flights to and from Los Angeles and Paris via Montreal for the period during which Pan Am would be barred from operating its West Coast-London-Paris service with change of gauge in London.
- The second Part 213 Order was not implemented, however. Legal experts of both Parties having met on 1 and 2 June in Washington, on 28 and 29 June in Paris and on 10 and 11 July in Washington, a Compromis of Arbitration was signed between the United States and France on 11 July 1978. This Compromis reads as follows:
Compromis of arbitration
between
the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the French Republic
The Government of the United States of America and the Government of the French Republic (the “Parties”):
Considering that there is a dispute concerning change of gauge under the Air Services Agreement between the United States of America and France, signed at Paris on March 27, 1946. as amended, and its Annex, as amended (collectively referred to as the “Agreement”),
Recognizing that the Parties have been unable to settle this dispute through consultations;
Considering also that the Government of France has raised a question with respect to the validity of the action undertaken by the Government of the United States under Part 213 of the Civil Aeronautics Board’s Economic Regulations in response to the action of the Government of France;
Noting that the Parties have decided to submit the dispute concerning change of gauge to an arbitral tribunal for binding arbitration;
Noting that the Government of France wishes to submit its question regarding the validity of the action undertaken by the United States to the arbitral tribunal for an advisory report pursuant to Article X of the Agreement;
Noting that in agreeing to ic.sort to arbitration with respect to change of gauge, the French Government reserves its light to argue before the tribunal that all means of internal recourse must be exhausted before a State may invoke arbitration under the Agreement;
Noting also that in agreeing to resort to arbitration with respect to Part 213, the United States Government reserves its right to argue before the tribunal that under the circumstances the issue is not approprrate for consideration by an arbitral tribunal,
Agree as follows:
(1) The arbitral tribunal (“tribunal”) shall be composed of three arbitrators One arbitrator shall be Mr Thomas Ehrlrch If tor any reason Mr Ehrlich becomes unable to act as arbitrator, the Government of the United States shall promptly designate a replacement. Another arbitrator shall be Prof, Paul Reuter. If for any reason Prof Reuter becomes unable to act as arbitrator, the Government of France shall promptly designate a replacement The third arbitrator shall be Prof W. Riphagen, who shall serve as President of the tribunal.
(2) The tribunal is requested to decide the following two questions in accordance with applicable international law and in particular with the provisions of the Agreement:
(A) Does a United States-designated carrier have the right to operate West Coast- Paris service under the Air Services Agreement between the United States and France with a change of gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey)’?
The tribunal’s decision of this question shall be binding
(B) Under the circumstances in question, did the United States have the right to undertake such action as it undertook under Part 213 ot the Civil Aeronautics Board’s Economic Regulations?
The tribunal shall issue an advisory report with respect to this question in accordance with Article X of the Agreement, which shall not be binding
(3) The parties have agreed on interim arrangements that will maintain strict equality of balance between the position of the Government of the United States that Pan American World Airways should be permitted to change gauge during arbitration, and the position of the Government of France that it should not change gauge during thrs period. To this end, and without prejudice to the position of either Party in this arbitration, from the date ot this compromis to December 10, 1978, Pan American World Airways shall be permitted to operate West Coast-Paris service with a change of gauge in London to the extent of 95 London-Paris flights in each direction Such flights may be scheduled at the airline’s discretion; provided, however, that no such service may operate prior to July 17, and that no more than six flights per week may be operated in each direction.
The tribunal shall be competent, in any event, at the request of either Party, to prescribe all other provisional measures necessary to safeguard the rights ot the Parties A Party may make such request in its written pleadings, at oral hearings, or subsequent to the oral hearings, as appropriate
Upon signature of this compromis, the United States Civil Aeronautics Board shall immediately vacate all pertinent orders issued pursuant to Part 213 of its Economic Regulations (Orders 78-5-45, 78-5-106. 78-6-82, and 78-6-202)
(4) Each Party shall be represented before the tribunal by an agent Each agent may nominate a deputy or deputies to act for him and may be assisted by such advisors, counsel, and staff as he deems necessary. Each Party shall communicate the names and addresses of its respective agent and deputy or deputies to the other Party and to the members of the tribunal.
(5) The tribunal shall, after consultation with the two agents, appoint a registrar
(6) (A) The proceedings shall consist ot written pleadings and oral hearings
(B) The written pleadings shall be limited to the following documents:
(i) A memorial, which shall be submitted by each Party to the other Party by September 18, 1978,
(ii) A reply, which shall be submitted by each Party to the other Party by November 6, 1978.
Four certified copies of each document shall be submitted promptly to the registrar.
(C) The tribunal may extend the above time limits at the request of either Party for good
cause shown, provided that the time limits shall not be extended under any circumstances by a total of more than two weeks. The tribunal may if it wishes request supplemental pleadings,
(D) Oral hearings shall be held at Geneva, Switzerland, or at such other place as the Parties may agree, on November 20 and 21, 1978, at a specific time and place to be fixed by the President of the tribunal.
(7) (A) The Parties shall present their written pleadings and oral arguments to the tribunal in English or in French
(B) The tribunal shall arrange for simultaneous interpretation of the oral hearings and shall keep a verbatim record of all oral hearings in English and in French,
(8) (A) Subject to the provisions of this compromis, the tribunal shall determine its own procedure and all questions affecting the conduct of the arbitration.
(B) All decisions of the tribunal shall be determined by a majority vote
(C) The tribunal may engage such technical, secretarial, and clerical staff and obtain such services and equipment as may be necessary.
(9) The tribunal shall use its best efforts to render a decision on the change of gauge question and an advisory report on the Part 213 issue as soon as possible, but not later than December 10, 1978. To this end the tribunal shall sit from the date of the opening of the oral hearings until the date its decision and advisory report are rendered. If necessary, the tribunal may render a decision and advisory report limited to the conclusion, on or before December 10, with sufficiently clear guidance to enable the Parties to implement the decision; and issue a full decision and advisory report as soon as possible thereafter. A copy of the decision and of the advisory report, signed by all three arbitrators, shall be immediately communicated to each of the agents
(10) Any dispute between the Parties as to the interpretation of the decision or of the advisory report shall be referred to the tribunal for clarification at the request of either Party within 60 days of receipt of the written decision and report.
(11) (A) One copy each of all written pleadings of the Parties, the decision and the advisory report of the tribunal, and any written clarification thereof shall be submitted by the tribunal to the International Civil Aviation Organization.
(B) One copy of the verbatim record of all oral hearings, in English and in French, shall be submitted by the tribunal to the International Civil Aviation Organization.
(C) Notwithstanding subparagraphs 11 (A) and (B), documents regarded and designated as confidential by a Party and relevant portions of any pleading or record based thereon shall be treated confidentially by both Parties and the tribunal, and shall not be submitted by the tribunal to the International Civil Aviation Organization.
(12) (A) The remuneration of the three arbitrators, their travel and lodging expenses, and all general expenses of the arbitration shall be borne equally by the Parties Each arbitrator shall keep a record and render a final account of all general expenses. The Parties shall agree upon the amount of remuneration and shall confer with each other and the President of the tribunal in all matters concerning remuneration and expenses.
(B) Each Party shall bear its own expenses incurred in the preparation and presentation of its case.
(13) The provisions of Articles 59, 65 to 78 inclusive, 81 and 84 paragraph 1 of the Convention of October 18, 1907 for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes shall be applicable with respect to any points which are not covered by the present compromis.
(14) The compromis shall come into force on the date of signature,
10. During the hearing of 21 November 1978, in reply to a question addressed to them, the Agents of the two Parties agreed that the Arbitral Tribunal, if it so chose, could go beyond the 10 December 1978 fixed in point (9) of the Compromis of Arbitration as the final date for the delivery of the operative part of its award, in order to issue a complete award, on the understanding that this would be done as soon as possible.
Summary of the Arguments of the Parties
1. Question (A)
(a) The preliminary issue
- In the sixth preambular paragraph of the Compromis, France reserved its right to plead that local remedies have not been exhausted. France contends that the requirement of the exhaustion of local remedies, which is firmly rooted in international practice, must apply to the situation envisaged in Question (A), because the latter relates to a dispute over treaty rules which are specifically designed to protect the rights of private entities—the designated air carriers—rather than those of the United States as such. This contention is based on the terms of the 1946 Air Services Agreement between the United States and France as well as on the wording of the Compromis of Arbitration.58 Article X of the 1946 Agreement, which calls for submission to an arbitral tribunal of disputes “relative to the interpretation or application of this Agreement or its Annex which cannot be settled through consultation . . . “,[4] cannot be construed as a derogation from the local remedies rule. As Pan Am has requested the Administrative Tribunal of Paris to annul the decision of 14 March 1978, and as this request is still pending, the Arbitral Tribunal is precluded, at least for the time being, from replying to Question (A).
- The United States argues that the local remedies rule does not apply to disputes where, as is the case here, a State complains that its own rights have been infringed. Nor does it apply to disputes in which a State claims that both its own rights and those of its nationals have been infringed; in such disputes, the State’s own rights take precedence. This is precisely the situation in the present case: the disputed rights flow from an international agreement between the United States and France in the implementation of which the United States has designated a carrier—Pan Am—whose rights are also affected by the decision of 14 March 1978. In any event, the United States contends, the local remedies rule is waived by Article X of the 1946 Air Services Agreement. Finally, the United States argues, the rule would in any case be inapplicable because no effective remedy is available under French law: the interpretation of a treaty obligation of France given by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs cannot be reversed by the French administrative tribunals.
(b) The substantive issue
- The United States contends that Section VI of the Annex to the 1946 Agreement[5] limits the right of either Party to changes of gauge in the territory of the other Party but not in the territory of third countries. According to the United States, change of gauge in London is consistent with the fundamental objective of the 1946 Agreement, stated in Section IV of its Annex,[6] to provide air travel “at the cheapest rates consistent with sound economic principles”; this objective would be frustrated by denying the carriers designated by the United States the most efficient means to operate over agreed routes. The change of gauge in London contemplated by Pan Am (from a larger to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and from a smaller to a larger aircraft on the return journey) is also consonant with the capacity principles enunciated by Section IV; operational changes which are consonant with traffic principles, which do not affect traffic rights, and which are executed in third countries on agreed routes should be of no concern to the other Party. This interpretation is confirmed by the negotiating history of the 1946 Agreement, which is modelled on the Air Services Agreement concluded on II February 1946 between the United States and the United Kingdom (Bermuda I). The latter Agreement, like the former, only regulated changes of gauge occurring in the territory of the Contracting Parties; in so doing, it struck a compromise between United Kingdom preference for regulating changes of gauge anywhere and United States preference for total freedom in this matter. In their similar, Bermuda I-type Agreement, the United States and France likewise agreed to regulate changes of gauge in their territory but not in the territory of third countries. Finally, the interpretation of the 1946 Agreement advocated by the United States is confirmed by long-standing international practice under that Agreement as well as by the manner in which other States have applied bilateral air services agreements of the Bermuda I type.
14. France argues that the 1919 Paris Convention and the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation recognise the sovereignty of States over the air space above their territory and that the bilateral air services agreements granting air traffic rights must hence be interpreted strictly, in the sense that, wherever an agreement does not expressly permit changes of gauge—as is the case under Section VI of the Annex to the 1946 Agreement as regards changes in third countries—such changes must be deemed to be prohibited. This interpretation, which corresponds to the clear text and natural meaning of Section VI and which results in an application of the maxim “expressio unius est exclusio alterius”, is supported by the application of general principles of treaty interpretation, not only by the above- mentioned rule according to which treaty rules implying limitations on sovereignty must be interpreted res trie tively, but also by the principle according to which the objective and the fundamental provisions of the agreement must be taken into consideration. First, it is the objective of the 1946 Agreement to confer upon the Parties specific and limited rights on a basis of reciprocity, and this objective calls for a strict interpretation; the grant of additional economic advantages, such as the right to change gauge in third countries, would require new negotiations. Second, certain fundamental rules contained in Section IV of the Annex to the Agreement and expressly referred to in Section VI (change of gauge) support the strict interpretation already arrived at. This is true, in particular, of the statement that the Parties wish “to foster and encourage the widest possible distribution of the benefits of air travel”, of the principle under which the designated carriers of one Party operating on authorized routes shall take into account the interests of the carriers of the other Party operating on all or part of the same route, of the rule that the air services offered “should bear a close relationship to the requirements of the public”—and changes of gauge may indeed inconvenience the public—and of the capacity principles contained in letter (d), which provides, inter alia, that the services provided by a designated air carrier
shall retain as their primary objective the provision of capacity adequate to the traffic demands between the country of which such air carrier is a national and the country of ultimate destination of the traffic.
A change of gauge, in London, on the West Coast-Paris route, from a Boeing 747 to a Boeing 727 aircraft means that the capacity offered is geared to the traffic demand on the San Francisco-London segment rather than to the traffic demand existing for the entire San Francisco-Paris service. According to France, a strict interpretation of Section VI of the Annex to the 1946 Agreement is also warranted by the opinions of writers and by the subsequent conduct of the Parties to that Agreement. 2. Question (B)
(a) The preliminary issue
15, In the seventh preambular paragraph of the Compromis, the United States reserved the right to argue that “under the circumstances the issue is not appropriate for consideration by an arbitral tribunal”. The United States submits that the Arbitral Tribunal should decline to answer Question (B). A first argument made in support of this Submission is that neither France nor French carriers suffered any injury as a result of the action taken by the United States under Part 213 of the Economic Regulations of the C.A.B. The Order of 9 May 1978 required Air France and U.T.A. to file their existing and new schedules within specified time-limits, just as United States carriers must routinely file schedules with the French authorities. The Order of 31 May 1978, which was to bar Air France from operating its thrice-weekly Paris-Los Angeles flights, was vacated before its implementation. It follows that, no French air services having been restricted by the two Orders, France has suffered no injury. A second argument put forward by the United States is based on the rule that international tribunals vested with a judicial function should not act when, as in the present case, there is no actual and genuine controversy the resolution of which can affect existing relations between the Parties. A third argument is that the issue addressed by Question (B) did not form the object of the consultation required by Article X of the 1946 Agreement. Finally, in response to a French argument outlined below (paragraph 16), to the effect that the two C.A.B. Orders were deliberately maintained during negotiations with a view to inducing France to accept binding adjudication of Question (A) and to agree to an expedited procedure and to the interim arrangements now contained in the Compromis, the United States observes that these solutions were arrived at, not as a result of undue pressure, but because France, too, was convinced that binding arbitration was the most appropriate method for dealing with Question (A), because the interests in issue called for a prompt solution, and because the interim regime established appeared a fair one.
- In reply to the first argument put forward by the United States,
France contends that it is seeking reparation for the moral damage (“dom- mage moral”) caused to it through the violation of international law and, in particular, of the 1946 Agreement resulting from United States action. In addition, France argues, the C.A.B. Orders did cause material injury to the French carriers. Finally, it states that these two Orders were deliberately maintained by the United States during the negotiations for the purpose of inducing France, which wished to confine its commitments to the obligations established by Article X of the 1946 Agreement (advisory jurisdiction), to accept binding adjudication of Question (A) and to agree to the expedited procedure and the interim arrangements now provided for in the Compromis. As regards the second United States argument—the absence of any actual controversy due to the lack of injury—France insists that it claims reparation for the moral damage inflicted on it, that the reparation claimed consists in a declaration, and that in cases such as the present one, international tribunals are empowered to render declaratory judgments even in the absence of a material injury—which is not the case here. Finally, the reality of France’s interest is evidenced by the fact that both the 1946 Agreement and Part 213 of the C.A.B.’s Economic Regulations continue to be in force; thus, Part 213 may at any future time serve as a basis for new measures against France, either within the framework of the present case or in other situations. France also rejects the third United States argument—the alleged non-compliance with the requirement of consultation contained in Article X of the Agreement—by pointing out that if consultations were not as extended as one might have wished, this is due to the rigidity of the negotiating position of the United States. Moreover, the United States should have voiced its objection prior to the conclusion of the Compromis; the provision included in the seventh preambular paragraph of the Compromis is far too general to be understood as a reference to the obligation of prior consultation. Having thus accepted to submit Question (B) to arbitration, the United States is now estopped from arguing that the issue is not appropriate for consideration by the Arbitral Tribunal.
(b) The substantive issue
17. According to France, the C.A.B. Orders of 9 and 31 May 1978 are unjustified regardless of whether they are characterised as reprisals or considered from the perspective of the law of treaties, within the framework of the exceptio non adimpleti contractus. As regards the theory of reprisals, France first notes that its decision of 14 March 1978 did not run counter to the 1946 Agreement and, hence, could not justify reprisals. In any event, France argues, reprisals may be resorted to only in case of necessity, i.e. in the absence of other legal channels to settle the dispute; plainly this condition was not met, for such channels were available under Article X of the 1946 Agreement. Furthermore, the retaliation procedure should have been preceded by an unsuccessful formal request, as required by international law. Finally, the measures taken by the United States were disproportionate. On the one hand, they affected uncontested rights of French carriers under the 1946 Agreement, while the right of the United States-designated carrier to effect a change of gauge in London is a contested one; on the other hand, the implementation of the C.A.B.’s Order of 31 May 1978, depriving Air
France of its thrice-weekly Paris-Los Angeles flights, would have entailed an economic prejudice far exceeding that suffered by Pan Am as a result of the decision of 14 March 1978. If the question is viewed from the perspective of the law of treaties, it must be pointed out that the suspension of treaty provisions by one Party is not permitted unless the other Party has previously violated the treaty, which France denies having done. In addition, the violation in question must be material, i.e. consist in an unauthorised repudiation of the treaty or pertain to a provision essential to the accomplishment of the treaty’s object or purpose; in the present case, neither condition was fulfilled. Moreover, even if the above-mentioned conditions had been met, suspension could have taken place only if the injured State had had no other means to ensure respect of the treaty; Article X of the 1946 Agreement shows that this was not the case here.
18. According to the United States, the action taken by the C.A.B. was justified under the theory of reprisals and the law of treaties, for both require a prior breach of an international obligation. Such a breach resulted from France’s action at Orly Airport on 3 May 1978 and from its continued refusal to allow Pan Am to operate a change-of-gauge service, regardless of whether the existence of the right claimed by the United States has been confirmed by an arbitral tribunal or not. The measures taken by the United States should not be viewed as a termination of the 1946 Agreement or as a suspension of its application, but rather as steps towards a limited withdrawal of rights of French carriers corresponding to the rights denied the United States carrier. At any rate, France’s conduct amounts to a “serious” or “material” breach of the 1946 Agreement, as is shown by the losses suffered by Pan Am due to the disruption of its operating plans. The United States rejects the French argument that under both the theory of reprisals and the law of treaties no counter-measures may be taken where alternative means of satisfaction exist. The theory of reprisals as represented by France, if correct, applies to armed reprisals only; in the present context, that theory could not be accepted until the institutions of international adjudication have evolved to the point where there are international tribunals in place with the authority to take immediate interim measures of protection, for otherwise the respondent State would lack any incentive to co-operate in the expeditious conclusion of arbitration proceedings. An examination of the rules of the law of treaties leads to a similar conclusion. As far as the French argument on the lack of proportionality is concerned, the United States points out that Air France’s Paris-Los Angeles service is roughly equivalent in fact to the West Coast-Paris service Pan Am proposed to resume; the French carriers moreover neglected the opportunity to complain to the C.A.B. regarding the scope of the proposed counter-measures. The two services are also equivalent in law, for, contrary to the French argument, there can be proportionality between a disputed service and an undisputed service.
Preliminary Issues
19. In the sixth and seventh preambular paragraphs of the Compromir of Arbitration, it is noted
that in agreeing to resort to arbitration with respect to change of gauge, the French Government reserves the right to argue before the tribunal that all means of internal recourse must be exhausted before a State may invoke arbitration under the Agreement,
and
that in agreeing to resort to arbitration with respect to Part 213, the United States Government reserves the right to argue before the tribunal that under the circumstances the issue is not appropriate for consideration by an arbitral tribunal.
- The relevant final Submissions of the Parties, as presented during the oral hearing of 21 November 1978, read as follows:
For France:
May it please the Arbitral Tribunal:
(I) Regarding Question (A),
To adjudge and declare that the Government of the United States was required, before acting on the international level by resorting to arbitration, to wait until the United States company that considers itself injured by the allegedly unlawful act of the French Government had exhausted the remedies open to it under French law; and that, since those remedies have not been exhausted, the Arbitral Tribunal is unable to decide on the question submitted to it;
Subsidiarily,
To adjudge and declare that, for the above-mentioned reasons, the Arbitral Tribunal must postpone its decision on Question (A) until such time as the Pan American World Airways company has either obtained recognition of the rights it claims from the French courts or exhausted the remedies available to it under French law without obtaining satisfaction;
62
For the United States:
the United States respectfully requests the Tribunal to rule as follows: on Question B, to decline to answer the question
- At first glance, the preambular paragraphs, together with the Submissions quoted above, seem to be self-contradictory, in particular when viewed within the context of the Compromis as a whole.
- In paragraph (2) of the Compromis, the Parties in common agreement request the Tribunal “to decide the following two questions”, and in the first sentence of paragraph (9) a precise and very short time-limit is set for the Tribunal “to render a decision on the change of gauge question and an advisory report on the Part 213 issue”: the decision and advisory report must be given not later than 10 December 1978; the same time-limit appears in paragraph (3) dealing with interim arrangements. Apparently, the Parties to the Compromis wanted a decision on both questions, and that within a period of time that would not permit the delays inherent in the fulfilment of the conditions elaborated in the written and oral pleadings relating to these preliminary matters.
- Indeed, this is not a case in which one Party unilaterally presents a claim before a tribunal under Article X of the Air Transport Services Agreement.[7] On the contrary, both Parties, by agreement, request the Tri- buna] to “decide . . . two questions” which they themselves have formulated and which, under the terms of paragraph (2) of the Compromis, must be answered “in accordance with applicable international law and in particular with the provisions of the Agreement” (emphasis added).
- It is in this context that the Tribunal has to respond to the requests formulated by the two Parties in their final Submissions quoted above.
- The French Submissions on Question (A) request the Tribunal to declare that it … is unable to decide on the question …” because Pan Am has not exhausted “the remedies open to it under French law”, or at least until Pan Am has exhausted these remedies.
- In this connexion, it should be noted that, as will appear from the part of the present Award relating to Question (A), there is no need for the Tribunal to decide on any question relating to any fact the existence of which might be in dispute between the Parties, Question (A), as formulated by agreement between the Parties, is purely a question of law, to be answered by interpretation of rules of international law and in particular of rules embodied in a treaty “establishing rules expressly recognised by the contesting States” (Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice).
- The Tribunal is not requested, in respect of Question (A), to state whether or not the existence of any fact or situation constitutes a breach of an international obligation, let alone to decide on “the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach of an international obligation” (Article 36 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice).
- As stated by the Arbitral Tribunal for the Agreement on German External Debts in its Award in the case of Swiss Confederation v. Federal Republic of Germany (No. 1), of 3 July 1958,
In legal text-books and decisions by the Permanent Court of International Justice and the International Court of Justice, as well as in treaty practice, the application of the rule of .exhaustion of local remedies has always been taken into consideration only in connection with a discussion of the question of the international responsibility ot a State for an unlawful act ( . ) committed on its territory against a national of another State and for a refusal to grant reparation of this unlawful act. vi: , a denial of |ustice ( ) {International Law Reports, vol. 25, 1958-1, p 33. at p 42.)
Annex which can not be settled through consultation shall be submitted for an advisory report to a tribunal of three arbitrators, one to be named by each Contracting Party, and the third to be agreed upon by the two arbitrators so chosen, provided that such third arbitrator shall not be a national of either Contracting Party Each ot the Contracting Parties shall designate an arbitrator within two months of the date of delivery by either Party to the other Party of a diplomatic note requesting arbitration of a dispute; and the third arbitrator shall be agreed upon within one month after such period of two months,
“If either of the Contracting Parties fails to designate its own arbitrator within two months, or if the third arbitrator is not agreed upon within the time limit indicated, the President of the International Court of Justice shall be requested to make the necessary appointments by choosing the arbitrator or arbitrators, after consulting the President of the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization.
“The Contracting Parties will use their best efforts under the powers available to them to put into effect the opinion expressed in any such advisory report, A moiety of the expenses of the arbitral tribunal shall be borne by each Party ”
- It has however been argued that, even if the question put to the Tribunal is formulated as a pure question of law independent from any existing factual situation, in reality a specific set of actual facts involving acts of Pan Am and of the French authorities (communication by Pan Am to French aeronautical authorities and reply thereto; landing of Pan Am aircraft at Orly on 3 May 1978 and acts of the French gendarmerie on that date) is at the root of the request for a decision on Question (A). In this connexion, reference has also been made to the fact that paragraph (3) of the Compromis, dealing with interim arrangements, mentions a specific air carrier—Pan Arn—and specific conduct of that company in the period from the date of signature of the Compromis up to 10 December 1978.
- The Tribunal does not consider these elements to be of such a character as to justify the application of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies in the present situation, with the effect of excluding—even if only for the time being—a decision of the Tribunal on Question (A). Quite naturally, governments of States are not likely to create a legal dispute between them if there exist no factual situations which somehow raise questions of international law. Similarly, if these governments agree on any interim arrangements pending the settlement of the dispute, such arrangements are likely to be expressed in terms of actual conduct, be it conduct of private individuals or entities or conduct of State organs in relation to those individuals or entities. Indeed, rules of international law, though primarily conceived in terms of conduct of and relationships between States, are ultimately concerned, like all rules of law, with the reality of physical persons, objects and activities in their interrelationship within human society. Accordingly, the rule of international law relating to the requirement of exhaustion of local remedies, when making a distinction between the State-to-State claims in which the requirement applies, and claims which are not subject to such a requirement, must necessarily base this distinction on the juridical character of the legal relationship between States which is invoked in support of the claim. Consequently, with respect to the applicability of the local remedies rule, a distinction is generally made between “cases of diplomatic protection” and “cases of direct injury”.
- If it is argued that, by virtue of the French reservation contained in the sixth preambular paragraph of the Compromis, a parallel distinction should be made in the present case, where the question before the Tribunal is not one of reparation for, or even only determination of, injuries allegedly caused to a State by actual conduct of another State, such a distinction could only be based on the juridical character of the rules of international law which the Tribunal is requested and required to apply in deciding on Question (A). In this connexion, it is significant that Article 22 of the draft articles on State responsibility, as provisionally adopted in first reading by the International Law Commission in 1977,[8] establishes the requirement of exhaustion of local remedies only in relation to an obligation of “result”, which obligation “allows that this or an equivalent result may nevertheless be achieved by subsequent conduct of the State”, and which is an obligation “concerning the treatment of aliens”. Leaving aside the choice made in this draft article between the qualification of the rule of exhaustion of local remedies as one of “procedure” or one of “substance”—a matter which the Tribunal considers irrelevant for the present case—it is clear that the juridical character of the rules of international law to be applied in the present case is fundamentally different from that of the rules referred to in the draft article just cited. Indeed, under Article I of the Air Services Agreement, “[t]he Contracting Parties grant to each other the rights specified in the Annex hereto …” (emphasis added), and Sections I and II of the Annex both mention “the right to conduct air transport services by one or more air carriers of French [United States] nationality designated by the latter country . . . as a right granted by one government to the other government. Furthermore, it is obvious that the object and purpose of an air services agreement such as the present one is the conduct of air transport services, the corresponding obligations of the Parties being the admission of such conduct rather than an obligation requiring a “result” to be achieved, let alone one allowing an “equivalent result” to be achieved by conduct subsequent to the refusal of such admission. For the purposes of the issue under discussion, there is a substantial difference between, on the one hand, an obligation of a State to grant to aliens admitted to its territory a treatment corresponding to certain standards, and, on the other hand, an obligation of a State to admit the conduct of air transport services to, from and over its territory. In the latter case, owing to the very nature of international air transport services, there is no substitute for actually permitting the operation of such service, which could normally be regarded as providing an “equivalent result”.
- On the basis of the foregoing considerations, the Tribunal is of the opinion that it is “able to decide on the question submitted to it” and that it should not
postpone its decision on Question (A) until such time as the Pan American World Airways company has either obtained recognition of the rights it claims from the French courts or exhausted the remedies available to it under French law without obtaining satisfaction.
- Turning now to the last preambular paragraph of the Compromis and the final Submission of the United States requesting the Tribunal “… to decline to answer …” Question (B), the Tribunal first of all recalls the general observations made earlier relating to the self-contradictory character of this paragraph and Submission and the context within which the Tribunal has to deal with the objections of the United States to the effect that the Part 213 issue “under the circumstances … is not appropriate for consideration by an arbitral tribunal.”
- Indeed, here again, the objections of the United States that (a)
lent result may nevertheless be achieved by subsequent conduct of the State, there is a breach of the obligation only if the aliens concerned have exhausted the effective local remedies available to them without obtaining the treatment called for by the obligation or, where that is not possible, an equivalent treatment ”
United States action under Part 213 did not injure France or French air carriers; (b) the Parties did not consult with respect to the Part 213 issue; and (c) there is no actual controversy to adjudicate, are to be appreciated within the framework of the Compromis as a whole, including in particular its paragraphs (2) (B) and (3).
- In paragraph (2) of the Compromis, then, the Tribunal is requested “to decide the following two questions …” (emphasis added), including Question (B), which is framed as follows: “Under the circumstances in question, did the United States have the right to undertake . . . ?” (emphasis added). The opinion of the Tribunal, expressed in an advisory report, will have the effect provided for in Article X of the Agreement.
- On the other hand, paragraph (3) of the Compromis, dealing with arrangements the Parties have agreed upon pending the arbitration, provides inter alia that:
Upon signature of this compromis, the United States Civil Aeronautics Board shall immediately vacate all pertinent orders issued pursuant to Part 213
- Under these circumstances, the Tribunal is of the opinion that the objections raised against its issuing an advisory report with respect to Question (B) have to be assessed in a context substantially different from the one which exists in a case where an arbitral tribunal or international court would have to decide on a unilateral claim of one Party to a dispute, to establish the actual breach of an international obligation and to determine the consequences of such a breach.
- In particular, the fact that, by virtue of paragraph (3) of the Compromis, the pertinent C.A.B. Orders—notably Order 78-6-82 as amended by Order 78-6-202—have been vacated before they became effective is, in the opinion of the Tribunal, irrelevant for an answer to Question (B), which can only relate to the action undertaken by the United States before the date of signature of the Compromis.
- The Tribunal does not consider it necessary to express an opinion on the question whether the earlier C.A.B. Orders 78-5-45 (Order to file schedules) and 78-5-106 (Order denying motion for stay)—which did have effects before they were vacated—did injure France or French air carriers, since it is clear that the other Orders, considered within the framework of Question (B)—i.e. without taking into account their being vacated by virtue of, and after the signature of, the Compromis—would inflict such injury.
- The question of the requirement of prior consultations under Article X of the Air Services Agreement should be contemplated within the same framework. Even if the discussions between the Parties with respect to the action of the United States under Part 213 were not very extensive and perhaps more limited in time than those relating to the change-of-gauge issue, dealt with in the same discussions, they did in fact take place. In this connexion, it should be taken into account that, by their nature, the two issues were in fact closely interrelated: the Part 213 issue, by the very wording of both the relevant legislative text and the Orders themselves, is based on an alleged violation by France of its obligations in the matter of change of gauge.
- Finally—and again within the framework outlined above—the Tribunal considers that the arguments advanced and the precedents invoked by the United States in support of its thesis that under international law tribunals are enjoined to decide only “actual controversies” between the Parties are not directly applicable in the present situation. Throughout the discussions leading up to the signature of the Compromis, the request for arbitration on Question (B) has been linked up with the request for arbitration on Question (A). The link between the two issues also appears clearly from paragraph (3) of the Compromis. Both issues, in fact, involve the object and purpose of the Air Services Agreement between the Parties, viz., the rights of France and of the United States, respectively, to conduct air transport services on the routes specified in Schedules I and II (as amplified by the Exchange of Notes of 5 April 1960).
- Under these circumstances, the Tribunal would be failing in its duties were it to refuse to give its opinion on Question (B).
Question (A)
- The first question to be decided by the Tribunal is as follows:
Does a United States-designated carrier have the right to operate West Coast-Paris service under the Air Services Agreement between the United States and France with a change of gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey)”
On this question, the decision of the Tribunal shall be binding.
- To answer Question (A), the Tribunal first examined the terms of the Agreement itself as they refer specifically to change of gauge. In the absence of a clear answer based solely on those terms, the Tribunal next referred to other provisions of the Agreement as a whole. This analysis led to a tentative judgment on a response to Question (A). The Tribunal then tested that judgment in the light of both the overall context of international civil aviation in which the Agreement was negotiated and the practice of the Parties as they operated under the Agreement. The analysis indicates that neither the overall context nor the practice of the Parties is inconsistent with the tentative judgment based on the text of the Agreement as a whole. Finally, the Tribunal undertook a limited examination of practice under air services agreements similar to the France-United States one, for the sole purpose of ensuring that this practice did not suggest a wholly dissimilar approach from the Tribunal’s tentative judgment. Having taken these steps, the Tribunal concluded that the judgment referred to is valid and should properly serve as the basis for its response to Question (A). Each of the steps is discussed in some detail below.
1. The Text of the Agreement Relating to Change of Gauge
- The only specific provision concerning change of gauge in the Agreement is in Section VI of the Annex.[9] Section VI provides:
(a) For the purpose of the present Section, the term ‘Transshipment’ shall mean the transportation by the same carrier of traffic beyond a certain point on a given route by different aircraft from those employed on the earlier stages of the same route
(ft) Transshipment when justified by economy of operation will be permitted at all points mentioned in the attached Schedules in territory of the two Contracting Parties.
(c) However, no transshipments will be made in the territory of either Contracting Party which would alter the long-range characteristics of the operation or which would be inconsistent with the standards set forth in this Agreement and its Annex and particularly Section IV of this Annex
- By its terms, therefore, Section VI covers only a change of gauge (or other forms of transshipment) within the territory of one of the Parties. It does not apply to situations, such as the one referred to in Question (A), when a carrier seeks to change gauge in the territory of a third country along one of the routes covered by the Agreement. What implications may be drawn from the absence of any reference in the Agreement to change of gauge in third countries?
- The French Government has argued that this silence should be interpreted to preclude any change of gauge in third countries by a carrier of one Party unless specifically approved by the Government of the other Party. The French Government contends that no grant of authority to change gauge in third countries may be implied, particularly since only one type of situation involving change of gauge is expressly covered by Section VI. The United States Government takes the opposite position. A change of gauge in third countries is always permitted, it argues, and no prohibition may be implied from the Agreement. Rather, the United States Government urges, the implication of Section VI is that the only restrictions on change of gauge are those that relate to the territories of the Parties. Outside those territories, it claims, the Parties are permitted to change gauge without limitation.
- In the view of the Tribunal, neither of these extreme positions may be properly derived on the basis of Section VI, viewed in isolation from the other terms of the Agreement. It is necessary, instead, to turn to the text of the Agreement as a whole. As stated by the Permanent Court of International Justice in its Advisory Opinion of 12 August 1922 regarding the Competence of the International Labour Organisation,
it is obvious that the Treaty must be read as a whole and that its meaning is not to be determined merely upon particular phrases which, if detached from the context, may be interpreted in more than one sense (Publications of the P C I.J , Series B, No. 2, p. 23),
see also the United States-France Air Arbitration, 1963 (United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol. XVI, pp. 46-47).
2. The Text of the Agreement as a Whole
- The Agreement states in Article I that the
Contracting Parties giant to each other the rights specified in the Annex hereto for the establishment of the international air services set forth in that Annex ….
It is the terms of the Annex, therefore, that must be examined for a consideration of the rights of the Parties and any limitation on those rights.
- In Sections I and II of the Annex, the two Parties grant each other “the right to conduct air transport services” on the routes designated in the attached Schedules.[10] In the present case, the relevant texts are Schedule II and the Exchange of Notes dated 5 April I960.[11]
- In Section III, each Party provides limited rights on its own territory to the other Party—”rights of transit, of stops for non-traffic purposes and of commercial entry and departure for international traffic . . . “,[12]
- Section IV establishes basic guidelines for regulating capacity on the authorised routes. It states that both Parties wish to encourage air travel “for the general good of mankind at the cheapest rates consistent with sound economic principles”; that each Party shall take into account the interests of the carrier of the other Party in regard to services on the same routes; that services should “bear a close relation to the requirements of the public for such services” and, perhaps most important, that services “shall retain as their primary objective the provision of capacity adequate to the traffic demands between the country of which such air carrier is a national and the country of ultimate destination of the traffic”. Finally, the rights of carriers of either Party to embark or disembark passengers in the territory of the other Party are subject to an additional set of guiding principles.[13]
- Section V deals with rates to be charged by carriers of the Parties. Section VI, of course, has already been discussed. Section VII permits route changes by one Party in the territory of third countries—but not in the territory of the other Party—with a requirement only of prompt notice and an opportunity to consult if requested.[14] Lastly, Section VIII calls for the prompt exchange of information by the Parties.[15]
- The text of the entire Agreement is as significant for what it omits as for what it specifies. It is silent concerning most of the major operational issues facing an air carrier—types of plane, number of crew members, and the like. When jet planes were first developed, for example, one unfamiliar with the Agreement might have assumed that a new accord would be necessary. In fact, however, the 1946 Agreement was not modified at the time this remarkable technological innovation was introduced. Similarly, recent objections to supersonic planes were not based on the terms of the Agreement but solely on environmental concerns. The point is that the Agreement leaves to the Parties—and, if a Party chooses, to its designated air earners— the right to decide a wide range of key issues concerning almost every aspect of service on designated routes apart from those regarding rates and capacity.
- Exceptions to this basic approach are made in the Agreement, but in the main they concern regulation by a Party of activities in that Party’s territory. Section VII of the Annex provides, for example, that one Party may make changes in the routes described—with notice and the option of consultation—in the territory of third countries, but not in the territory of the other Party.
- Section VI of the Annex refers, as has been discussed, solely to change of gauge in the territory of one of the Parties. This in itself is understandable when the Agreement is viewed as a whole. It is entirely reasonable to draw a distinction between activities within the territory of a Party and activities within the territories of third countries. Each Party is naturally more concerned about what happens on its own territory than what happens elsewhere. Within a network of bilateral air services agreements throughout the world, this approach assures that activities in each territory are primarily regulated by the countries most directly concerned.
- What insights on Question (A) emerge from this examination of the text of the Agreement as a whole? First, it seems evident to the Tribunal that neither extreme position on the change-of-gauge issue may be accepted, On the one hand, some gauge changes in third countries must be permitted. When a plane has a mechanical failure, for example, a transshipment is plainly required, and no plane of the same size may be available. Similaily, carriers on routes that involve extremely long distances—including, most obviously, routes around the world—must change planes at some point or points, and there seems to be no reason why the same size aircraft must be used on every segment of such routes.
- On the other hand, the Agreement includes a variety of conditions concerning services by carriers of the Parties. The route descriptions in the Schedules are one set of conditions. The capacity provisions in Section IV of the Annex are another. It would undercut the terms of the Agreement to permit a change of gauge for the sole purpose of enabling a carrier to act inconsistently with one or more of these conditions.
- The issue that must be resolved, therefore, is how to distinguish between permitted and prohibited gauge changes in third countries. On this issue, the terms of the Agreement referred to above are of considerable assistance. Most important, they refer to designated routes and to services on those routes. Passengers may embark and disembark at various points, but the Agreement consistently reflects a concept of continuous service scheduled from a point of origin on a route to a point of termination on that route. This concept is not stated expressly in the Agreement, but it emerges from the text when read as a whole—particularly Section I of the Annex and the Schedules.
- On this basis, the Tribunal tentatively concluded that a change of gauge is authorised in the territory of a third country when the service involved is continuous—when the change of gauge is not simply a basis for providing a series of separate services.
- Under this approach, change of gauge cannot be used as an excuse for acting inconsistently with provisions of the Agreement, most obviously those relating to capacity. At the same time, a change of gauge may be the most appropriate means to ensure compliance with certain provisions. Traffic demands may diminish, for example, over the course of an extended route. This is plainly the case when, as in the particular situation at issue, so-called fifth-freedom traffic is precluded. United States carriers are prohibited from embarking passengers in London on the route to Paris via London from United States West Coast points. It is virtually certain, therefore, that the traffic demands on the route will be less on the London to Paris segment than on the preceding segment.
- Although Section VI is not by its terms applicable to the situation raised in Question (A), its text may properly be taken into account, and seems appropriately to reflect the Tribunal’s tentative judgment. That text refers specificalny to three criteria: first, a change of gauge within the territory of a Party must be justified by “economy of operation”; second, it must not “alter the long-range characteristics of the operation”; and third, it must not be inconsistent with other provisions of the Agreement, particularly Section IV of the Annex regarding capacity.
- The focus of the Tribunal on a concept of continuous service appears related to these criteria, when interpreted broadly. Economy of operation would naturally be a guiding principle for gauge changes that are consistent with the concept of continuous service; the “long-range characteristics of the operation” (i.e. characteristics of a service as opposed to a particular aircraft) reflect a sense of that concept; and, as already stated, a change of gauge may not be used simply as a basis for action inconsistent with provisions in the Agreement—most obviously the capacity provisions in Section IV of the Annex.
- Drawing on Section VI for appropriate guidance thus further confirms the judgment that a concept of continuous service is the key to a resolution of Question (A). A change of gauge that is consistent with that concept is authorised; a change of gauge that is designed to establish essentially separate services is precluded.
- At a point on a route where fifth-freedom rights are allowed, therefore, a scheduled change of gauge from a smaller to a larger plane is not permitted if experience has shown that the purpose of the change is solely to accommodate more fifth-freedom traffic than is allowed under the capacity principles in Section IV. Even if—as in the situation involved in Question (A)—no fifth-freedom rights are permitted at a point, change of gauge must not be used as an excuse for a significant delay in service—in effect to change a continuous service into a series of separate services.
3. The Context in Which the Agreement Was Negotiated
- Although no negotiating history of the Agreement concerning the specific question at issue was uncovered by the Parties, the broader context in which the Agreement was negotiated is relevant. There is no need to dwell at length on the Convention on International Civil Aviation concluded at Chicago on 7 December 1944, the basic instrument that set the stage for the rapid expansion of international civil aviation. It is considered in some detail in the Italy-United States Air Arbitration, 1964 (United Nations, Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol. XVI, pp. 96-98). Most important, the Convention established the structure for an international regime for civil air services that was remarkably open and unregulated except in terms of routes, rates, and capacity, and certain activities that may be regulated by the government of a country within its own territory. Taken as a whole, the Chicago Convention reflects neither the concept of “freedom of the air” nor a concept of national sovereignty of a State over the airspace above its territory as would permit that State to impose on the use of that airspace by foreign air carriers any condition whatsoever relating to conduct of that air carrier prior to or after such use. This context supports, therefore, the distinction that has been drawn above between activities relating to the territories of the Parties, which generally require specific authorisation, and activities on the territories of third countries, which are generally permitted absent a specific prohibition.
- The 1946 Bermuda Agreement between the United Kingdom and the United States, which preceded the France-United States Agreement by only a few months, is also a part of the relevant context, although France is clearly not bound by the Bermuda Agreement, let alone its negotiating history, for it was not a Party to the Agreement.
- The negotiating history of the Bermuda Agreement does indicate, however, a compromise between an initial United Kingdom position that was opposed to any change of gauge by a carrier of one Party without specific authorisation by the other Party, and an initial United States position favouring completely unrestricted change of gauge. The change-of-gauge provision that was finally adopted72 and the negotiating history make clear
12 Section V of the Annex to the Bermuda Agreement, which deals with change of gauge, provides the following
“(a) Where the onward carnage of traffic by an aircraft of different size from that employed on the earlier stage of the same route (hereinafter referred to as “change of gauge’) is justified by reason of economy of operation, such change of gauge at a point in the territory of the United Kingdom or the territory of the United States shall not be made in violation of the principles set forth in the Final Act of the Conference on Civil Aviation held at Bermuda from January 15 to February 11, 1946 and, in particular, shall be subject to there being an adequate volume of through traffic
“(b) Where a change of gauge is made at a point rn the territory of the United Kingdom or in the territory of the United States, the smaller aircraft will operate only in connection with the larger aircraft arriving at the point of change, so as to provide a connecting service which will thus normally wait on the arrival of the larger aircraft, for the primary purpose of carrying onward those passengers who have travelled to United Kingdom or United States territory in the larger aircraft to their ultimate destination in the smaller aircraft Where there are vacancies in the smaller aircraft such vacancies may be filled with passengers from United Kingdom or United States territory respectively It is understood however that the capacity of the smaller aircraft shall be determined with primary reference to the traffic travelling in the larger aircraft normally requiring to be earned onward
” . . . ” (United Nations Treaty Series, vol, 3, p. 253 )
that the Bermuda Agreement embodies a position on change of gauge consistent with the judgment expressed in this Award.
4. The Practice of the Parties
- The activities of the Parties under an international agreement over a period of time may, of course, be relevant—occasionally even decisive— in interpreting the text. In this case, a number of changes of gauge in third countries by United States carriers on routes specified in the Schedules occurred during the years that the Agreement has been in force. Not surprisingly, the Parties differ on the weight to be given to this practice. In the circumstances of this case, the Tribunal believes that all that can be fairly concluded from the entire course of practice by the Parties is that it does not lead to a different conclusion from the one tentatively adopted on the basis of the text of the Agreement and supported by the overall context in which the Agreement was negotiated.
- The United States has also referred to thousands of gauge changes under other international air services agreements to which it was or is a Party. Some of those agreements contain provisions similar to those in the France-United States Agreement; others are substantially different.
- The Tribunal would be extremely hesitant to draw firm conclusions from this practice, at least without detailed examination of each agreement and the relevant practice of the Parties—an examination that has not been possible in the limited time available to the Tribunal. On this basis, it is possible to say no more than that this practice also does not appear inconsistent with the approach adopted by the Tribunal.
Question (B)
- As a preliminary consideration, the Tribunal has to make two series of observations, the first covering the question itself, the second covering the “circumstances in question”.
- First of all with regard to the question itself, it is quite certain that the Arbitral Tribunal does not have to consider the compatibility in principle of the regime as a whole established by the system of Part 213 of the C.A.B. Economic Regulations with United States international obligations; nor even less does it have to assess the advantages and drawbacks of a system which constitutes, in air transport, the application of an approach which the United States has often used in its economic relations with other countries.
- All the Tribunal has to consider is whether, in the circumstances in question, the United States Government violated its international obligations by the action taken in the period immediately prior to the conclusion of the Compromis of Arbitration. It is also quite obvious that the lawfulness of such action must be considered regardless of the answer to the question of substance concerning the alleged violation of the 1946 Agreement by the French Government. It must now be established whether the United States
Government violated its international obligations by its action, even if it were assumed that it was established after such action, so as to bind the French Government, that the French Government had violated the 1946 Agreement before the United States action was taken.
- The second series of observations pertains to the specific “circumstances in question” in the present case. They cover a number of general aspects which must be briefly recalled. The most sensitive issue is perhaps the great uncertainty surrounding relations between the Parties inter se and between them and the company in question regarding the subject of the dispute, the objectives pursued, and even the exact reach of their positions. Such a situation easily gives rise to suspicion, concern and misjudged reactions which are liable to worsen the dispute. The fact that the interested company ignored the objections of the French authorities—brought to its notice by letter of 14 March 1978—by landing in French territory, the action taken by the French gendarmerie on 2 May and the subsequent measures taken by the C.A.B. clearly show an “escalation” of the conflict.
- Relations between the air companies and their national governments are complex; legally the companies are distinct from the governments and occasionally oppose their action; but the companies also fall in many ways under the legal dependence of governments and often act in close conjunction with them.
- Pan Am’s primary intention, as it appears from its letter of 5 October 1977, was to make changes in its services that could give rise to questions of principle. The French authorities’ refusal to approve those changes was not, however—it would seem—followed by any kind of consultation which would have been for both authorities concerned the normal consequence of such a representation under Article VIII of the 1946 Agreement. Pan Am then presented a more limited request which is at the origin of the dispute and based on transitional technical reasons which might possibly have been responded to by an approval for a limited period of time. The French refusal of 1978 acutely raised a question of principle not dealt with in so many words by the text of the Agreement (change of gauge in third countries); according to the documents submitted to the Tribunal, it does not appear that in more than 30 years of application of the Agreement the Parties had even discussed that question of principle. What then is the matter about? The solution of a provisional technical problem? The definition of a rule both the existence and the scope of which the Parties until then had avoided addressing? Would it really be a limited dispute or the preliminaries of a restructuring of international transport networks in that region of the world?
- The scope of the United States action could be assessed in very different ways according to the object pursued; does it bear on a simple principle of reciprocity measured in economic terms? Was it pressure aiming at achieving a quicker procedure of settlement? Did such action have, beyond the French case, an exemplary character directed at other countries and, if so, did it have to some degree the character of a sanction? It is not certain that those responsible for the measures taken made very refined studies of that point; it is understandable that France may have construed the procedures adopted by the United States in a way other than may have been intended by the United States.
- Those circumstances as a whole characterise a situation during which the Parties negotiated and which resulted in a Compromis of Arbitration, including interim measures, which is not submitted to the judgment of the Tribunal.
- Having thus recalled some of the essential circumstances of the case, the Tribunal will consider, in turn, the principle of the legitimacy of “counter-measures” and the limits on those measures in the light either of the existence of a machinery of negotiations or of a mechanism of arbitration or judicial settlement.
- Under the rules of present-day international law, and unless the contrary results from special obligations arising under particular treaties, notably from mechanisms created within the framework of international organisations, each State establishes for itself its legal situation vis-a-vis other States. If a situation arises which, in one State’s view, results in the violation of an international obligation by another State, the first State is entitled, within the limits set by the general rules of international law pertaining to the use of armed force, to affirm its rights through “counter-measures”.
- At this point, one could introduce various doctrinal distinctions and adopt a diversified terminology dependent on various criteria, in particular whether it is the obligation allegedly breached which is the subject of the counter-measures or whether the latter involve another obligation, and whether or not all the obligations under consideration pertain to the same convention. The Tribunal, however, does not think it necessary to go into these distinctions for the purposes of the present case. Indeed, in the present case, both the alleged violation and the counter-measure directly affect the operation of air services provided for in the Agreement and the Exchange of Notes of 5 April 1960.
- It is generally agreed that all counter-measures must, in the first instance, have some degree of equivalence with the alleged breach; this is a well-known rule. In the course of the present proceedings, both Parties have recognised that the rule applies to this case, and they both have invoked it. It has been observed, generally, that judging the “proportionality” of counter- measures is not an easy task and can at best be accomplished by approximation. In the Tribunal’s view, it is essential, in a dispute between States, to take into account not only the injuries suffered by the companies concerned but also the importance of the questions of principle arising from the alleged breach. The Tribunal thinks that it will not suffice, in the present case, to compare the losses suffered by Pan Am on account of the suspension of the projected services with the losses which the French companies would have suffered as a result of the counter-measures; it will also be necessary to take into account the importance of the positions of principle which were taken when the French authorities prohibited changes of gauge in third countries. If the importance of the issue is viewed within the framework of the general air transport policy adopted by the United States Government and implemented by the conclusion of a large number of international agreements with countries other than France, the measures taken by the United States do not appear to be clearly disproportionate when compared to those taken by France. Neither Party has provided the Tribunal with evidence that would be sufficient to affirm or reject the existence of proportionality in these terms, and the Tribunal must be satisfied with a very approximative appreciation.
- Can it be said that the resort to such counter-measures, which are contrary to international law but justified by a violation of international law allegedly committed by the State against which they are directed, is restricted if it is found that the Parties previously accepted a duty to negotiate or an obligation to have their dispute settled through a procedure of arbitration or of judicial settlement?
- It is tempting to assert that when Parties enter into negotiations, they are under a general duty not to aggravate the dispute, this general duty being a kind of emanation of the principle of good faith.
- Though it is far from rejecting such an assertion, the Tribunal is of the view that, when attempting to define more precisely such a principle, several essential considerations must be examined.
- First, the duty to negotiate may, in present times, take several forms and thus have a greater or lesser significance. There is the very general obligation to negotiate which is set forth by Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations and the content of which can be stated in some quite basic terms. But there are other, more precise obligations.
- The Tribunal recalls the terms of Article VIII of the 1946 Agreement, which reads as follows:
In a spiril of close collaboration, the aeronautical authorities of the two Contracting Parties will consult regularly with a view to assuring the observance of the principles and the implementation of the provisions outlined in the present Agreement and its Annex.
This Article provides for an obligation of continuing consultation between the Parties. In the context of this general duty, the Agreement establishes a clear mandate to the Parties to make good faith efforts to negotiate on issues of potential controversy. Several other provisions of the Agreement and the Annex state requirements to consult in specific circumstances, when the possibility of a dispute might be particularly acute. Finally, Article X imposes on the Parties a special consultation requirement when, in spite of previous efforts, a dispute has arisen.
- But the present problem is whether, on the basis of the above- mentioned texts, counter-measures are prohibited. The Tribunal does not consider that either general international law or the provisions of the Agreement allow it to go that far.
- Indeed, it is necessary carefully to assess the meaning of counter- measures in the framework of proportionality. Their aim is to restore equality between the Parties and to encourage them to continue negotiations with mutual desire to reach an acceptable solution. In the present case, the United States of America holds that a change of gauge is permissible in third countries; that conviction defined its position before the French refusal came into play; the United States counter-measures restore in a negative way the symmetry of the initial positions.
- It goes without saying that recourse to counter-measures involves the great risk of giving rise, in turn, to a further reaction, thereby causing an escalation which will lead to a worsening of the conflict. Counter-measures therefore should be a wager on the wisdom, not on the weakness of the other Party. They should be used with a spirit of great moderation and be accompanied by a genuine effort at resolving the dispute. But the Arbitral Tribunal does not believe that it is possible, in the present state of international relations, to lay down a rule prohibiting the use of counter-measures during negotiations, especially where such counter-measures are accompanied by an offer for a procedure affording the possibility of accelerating the solution of the dispute.
- That last consideration is particularly relevant in disputes concerning air service operations: the network of air services is in fact an extremely sensitive system, disturbances of which can have wide and unforeseeable consequences.
- With regard to the machinery of negotiations, the actions by the United States Government do not appear, therefore, to run counter to the international obligations of that Government.
- However, the lawfulness of such counter-measures has to be considered still from another viewpoint. It may indeed be asked whether they are valid in general, in the case of a dispute concerning a point of law, where there is arbitral or judicial machinery which can settle the dispute. Many jurists have felt that while arbitral or judicial proceedings were in progress, recourse to counter-measures, even if limited by the proportionality rule, was prohibited. Such an assertion deserves sympathy but requires further elaboration. If the proceedings form part of an institutional framework ensuring some degree of enforcement of obligations, the justification of counter-measures will undoubtedly disappear, but owing to the existence of that framework rather than solely on account of the existence of arbitral or judicial proceedings as such.
- Besides, the situation during the period in which a case is not yet before a tribunal is not the same as the situation during the period in which that case is sub judice. So long as a dispute has not been brought before the tribunal, in particular because an agreement between the Parties is needed to set the procedure in motion, the period of negotiation is not over and the rules mentioned above remain applicable. This may be a regrettable solution, as the Parties in principle did agree to resort to arbitration or judicial settlement, but it must be conceded that under present-day international law States have not renounced their right to take counter-measures in such situations. In fact, however, this solution may be preferable as it facilitates States’ acceptance of arbitration or judicial settlement procedures.
- The situation changes once the tribunal is in a position to act. To the extent that the tribunal has the necessary means to achieve the objectives justifying the counter-measures, it must be admitted that the right of the Parties to initiate such measures disappears. In other words, the power of a tribunal to decide on interim measures of protection, regardless of whether this power is expressly mentioned or implied in its statute (at least as the power to formulate recommendations to this effect), leads to the disappearance of the power to initiate counter-measures and may lead to an elimination of existing counter-measures to the extent that the tribunal so provides as an interim measure of protection. As the object and scope of the power of the tribunal to decide on interim measures of protection may be defined quite narrowly, however, the power of the Parties to initiate or maintain counter- measures, too, may not disappear completely.
- In a case under the terms of a provision like Article X of the Air Services Agreement of 1946, as amended by the Exchange of Notes of 19 March 19.51, the arbitration may be set in motion unilaterally. Although the arbitration need not be binding, the Parties are obliged to “use their best efforts under the powers available to them to put into effect the opinion expressed” by the Tribunal, In the present case, the Parties concluded a Compromis that provides for a binding decision on Question (A) and expressly authorises the Tribunal to decide on interim measures.
- As far as the action undertaken by the United States Government in the present case is concerned, the situation is quite simple. Even if arbitration under Article X of the Agreement is set in motion unilaterally, implementation may take time, and during this period counter-measures are not excluded; a State resorting to such measures, however, must do everything in its power to expedite the arbitration. This is exactly what the Government of the United States has done.
- The Tribunal’s Reply to Question (B) consists of the above observations as a whole. These observations lead to the conclusion that, under the circumstances in question, the Government of the United States had the right to undertake the action that it undertook under Part 21.3 of the Economic Regulations of the C.A.B,
For these reasons,
The Arbitral, Tribunal replies as follows to the questions submitted
to it:
Question (A)
Considering that under the sixth preambular paragraph of the Compromis of Arbitration, the French Government,
In agreeing to resort to arbitration with respect to change ot gauge reserves its right to argue before the tribunal that all means of internal recourse must be exhausted before a State may invoke arbitration under (he Agreement,
Considering that the question asked is the following:
Does a United States-designated carrier have the right to operate West Coast-Paris service under the Air Services Agreement between the United States and France with a change of gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aucralt on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey)’
Considering that the Arbitral Tribunal is therefore called upon to pronounce on two points,
The Arbitral Tribunal,
With regard to the first point,
Decides, unanimously, that it is able to decide on Question (A);
With regard to the second point.
Decides, by two votes to one, that the answer to be given on this point is that a United States designated carrier has the right to operate West Coast- Paris service under the Air Services Agreement between the United States and France with a change of gauge in London (transshipment to a smaller aircraft on the outward journey and to a larger aircraft on the return journey), provided that the service is continuous and does not constitute separate services.
Question (B)
Considering that, under the seventh preambular paragraph of the Compromis of Aibitration, the United States Government,
in agreeing to resort to arbitration with rcspect to Part 213 . reserves its right to argue before the tribunal that under the circumstances the issue is not appropriate for consideration by an arbitral tribunal.
Considering that the question asked is the following:
Under the eircumstanccs in question, did the United States have the right to undertake such action as it undertook under Part 213 of the Civil Aeronautics Board’s Economic Regulations’?
Considering that the Arbitral Tribunal is therefore called upon to pronounce on two points,
The Arbitral Tribunal,
With respect to the first point.
Decides, unanimously, to pronounce on Question (B);
With respect to the second point.
Decides, unanimously, that the answer to be given on this point is that, under the circumstances in question, the Government of the United States had the right to undertake the action that it undertook under Part 213 of the Economic Regulations of the C.A.B.
Done in English and French at the Graduate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, this 9th day of December 1978, both texts being equally authoritative, in three original copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of the Arbitral Tribunal, and the two others transmitted to the Government of the United States of America and to the Government of the French Republic, respectively.
(Signed)
Willem Riphagen, President Thomas Ei-irlich, Arbitrator Paul Reuter, Arbitrator Lucius Caflisch, Registrar
M. Paul Reuter appends to the Arbitral Award a statement of his dissenting opinion.
Dissenting opinion of M. Reuter
I accepted the position of the Tribunal on the preliminary objection to Question (A) and on the preliminary objection and the answer on the merits to Question (B); in that connexion I feel bound, however, to make a number of observations and to express certain doubts.
The Parties in the present Arbitration sovereignly determined the questions put to the Tribunal and therefore restricted the Tribunal’s jurisdiction to those questions. An arbitral tribunal like the present one has to comply with that common will. But it is clear, from the documents of the case, that the dispute between the Parties is more extensive than the questions submitted to the Tribunal. The actual choice of questions is, in my view, very artificial. That situation resulted in problems which created difficulties for the Parties themselves since they raised preliminary objections; difficulties may arise for the Tribunal as well. It could thus have been asked whether the difference in legal value attributed to the Tribunal’s replies to Questions (A) and (B) is consonant with the judicial function of a tribunal; it could further have been asked whether, in the circumstances of the case, France could still claim a sufficient legal interest to ask Question (B) after the conclusion of the Compromis. With the Tribunal, I have answered in the negative the preliminary issue raised by Question (B), because a refusal of the Tribunal to answer that Question would only have emphasized further an inequality between the Parties visible elsewhere.
As regards the merits of Question (B), my answer has been that of the Tribunal, but with one observation. I accept the Tribunal’s legal analysis, in particular the idea that, in order to assess the proportionality of the counter- measures, it is necessary to take into account, not only the actual facts, but also the questions of principle raised by them. Those questions should, however, be considered in the light of their probable effects. Hence, proportionality should be assessed on the basis of what actually constituted the dispute rather than exclusively on the basis of the facts before the Tribunal. One may well continue to entertain serious doubts on the proportionality of the counter-measures taken by the United States, which the Tribunal has been unable to assess definitely.
As far as the Tribunal’s reply to Question (A) is concerned, I regret being unable to concur in either the general position adopted by the Tribunal or its reply, and I shall briefly state the reasons for my dissent.
I shall first make two preliminary comments pertaining to the scope of “transshipment” and to the terminology used.
Within the extensive meaning attributed to the term “transshipment” by the 1946 Agreement,[16] the economic scope of this expression varies considerably, from non-existent to considerable, depending on the conditions under which “transshipment” takes place. If an aircraft is replaced by another aircraft whose characteristics are similar, “transshipment” is but a consequence of technical considerations pertaining to air navigation. If, for a specific service, an aircraft is replaced by another aircraft with a different capacity, however, the economic consequences can be significant. If the change of aircraft is accompanied by a combination of services (one aircraft being used to carry the freight or passengers of several others) or a fanning out of services (passenger or freight of one aircraft being distributed among several aircraft with different destinations), the identity and continuity of air services become more questionable, and the reasonably linear character of long-distance air routes is affected.[17]
In this field terminology is very unclear; the same expressions are not always used to describe the same realities, and “transshipment” is not always clearly distinguished from the different operations which can be carried out as a result of “transshipment”. But the interests affected by those operations may be considerable; they vary from one country to another and lead to different agreed solutions reflecting the different types of compromise struck between the interests of the Parties.
There is, in particular, one essential point on which I am unable to concur in the Arbitral Award: it concerns the interpretation to be given to the intention of the Parties as regards the obvious gap in this Agreement which specifically regulates “transshipment” in the territory of the Parties and is pointedly silent on “transshipment” in third countries.
When a treaty between two or several Parties is intended to establish general rules on a specific subject, it is tempting to infer general principles from that treaty and thereby to collect elements which will make it possible to “fill a gap”, i.e. to settle matters which were not specifically resolved. However, the use of such a constructive approach is only permissible if it truly corresponds to the intention of the Parties as is ascertainable from specific and consistent evidence. That is not the case where the treaty is silent, not because the Parties did not want to lay down detailed rules, nor because the negotiators had neglected to do so, nor because of a development which had not been foreseen at the time the Agreement was concluded, but because of the conscious acceptance of an unresolved disagreement which resulted in a gap being left in the Agreement. Whether the Parties were unable to overcome their disagreement because of lack of time or because of the seriousness of their differences is irrelevant: the only way left open by them for settling the unresolved issue is the conclusion of an agreement at a later date. It is not permissible to take the place of the Parties and to attempt, under the cloak of general principles, what practically amounts to legislation when the Parties themselves failed to undertake such legislation although they were the most properly qualified to do so. The fact that an arbitral tribunal cannot legislate in such a case, even under the pretence of interpretation, does not mean that pending the conclusion of a supplementary agreement between the Parties the question remains unanswered. It means that the situation is governed by the other relevant rules of international law.
In the present case, the 1946 Agreement devotes a rather substantial provision to “transshipment” (Section VI of the Annex), The wording of this provision leads the reader to expect a thorough regulation both of “transshipment” in the territory of the Parties and of “transshipment” in the territory of third countries; but the text then fails to fulfil that expectation and remains totally silent on “transshipment” in third countries. It is therefore apparent from the very structure of that text that the matter was not overlooked by the negotiators, that they realised its importance, and that it was intentional that the issue was left unresolved when the Agreement was concluded. Having endorsed, in Article VIII, the principle of close collaboration and regular consultations, the Parties probably did not regard that silence as a final situation, but they must have accepted the fact that pending a new agreement, general rules which had hitherto been applicable between them should remain in force, i.e. the rules of the Convention on International Civil Aviation concluded at Chicago on 7 December 1944 and, in particular, the rule which provides that every State shall have complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory (Article 1). Under these rules, the French Government had to give its agreement to air services relating to French territory in all their aspects (Article 6).
There is no need to seek confirmation of this interpretation of the 1946 Agreement by reviewing the respective positions and interests of the Parties at the time of conclusion of that Agreement. At the time, there existed a strong divergence of views between the United States which, in accordance with its interests, sought maximum “flexibility” in air services, and certain European countries which were not then (and have never been since) in a position to put such flexibility to use. As far as the long-distance character of services and the capacity principles are concerned, France had requirements that were even more stringent than those of the United Kingdom. These requirements are reflected in the Exchange of Notes of 28/29 December 1945 establishing a provisional regime between the United States and France; this Exchange of Notes, which preceded the 1946 Agreement, is quoted in full by the Arbitral Award of 22 December 1963 in the United States-France Air Arbitration.15 They are also reflected in the actual text of the 1946 Agreement, which differs considerably from the text of the Bermuda I Agreement.[18] The absence of any agreement on “transshipment” in third countries acquires its full meaning in the light of those diverging interests. An interpretation overlooking such a failure to agree would not only be unjustified but would introduce into the interpretation of the Agreement an element of imbalance; international law, inspired in this respect by the common law, shows, in connexion with another problem, that it does not favour such imbalances in the law of treaties (Article 44, paragraph 3(c), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, of 23 May 1969). Indeed, practice taken as a whole, in particular the practice regarding air routes, has interpreted the 1946 Agreement restrictively,77 while other provisions of the Agreement would be given an extensive interpretation which would be unfavourable to the Party which is not in fact in a position to take advantage of that interpretation.
The fact that by remaining silent the 1946 Agreement records a disagreement between the Parties on the “transshipment” regime in third countries, thereby submitting “transshipment” to the authorisation of the other Contracting Party, does not, however, imply that that Party is totally free to refuse such authorisation.
It is indeed necessary, in the first place, to take into account the duties of the Parties regarding air safety and the compliance with the technical constraints of air navigation. The rights of the Parties in this respect are so obvious that the 1946 Agreement did not even mention them in Section VI of its Annex; they derive from the general or specific provisions of the Chicago Convention mentioned earlier (from its Article 25, for instance).
In the second place, the Parties are committed to close collaboration and regular consultations on all matters concerning the application of the Agreement (Article VIII); this is particularly true for a matter on which they failed to agree when the Agreement was concluded. They therefore have to comply with a far more serious and definite obligation to negotiate than under an ordinary obligation to negotiate. Such negotiations, as the International Court of Justice has often stated, must be meaningful, i.e. they must by compromise seek mutually acceptable solutions, and these solutions must respect the balance which was established by the Agreement and on which the Parties have laid great stress in connexion with the United States counter-measures; in the course of such negotiations, the Parties must moreover respect the various objectives of the Chicago Convention, in particular the objective set forth in Article 44 (/) under which each Contracting State is assured of “a fair opportunity to operate international airlines”.
Those are not merely nominal obligations. In fact, because of their scope, the refusal to grant an authorisation for “transshipment” in a third country is justifiable only where such “transshipment” affects the balance of concessions mutually granted by the Parties in the Agreement—in which case a reasonable compensatory concession will restore the balance—or where the legitimate interests of one Party are in serious jeopardy—in which
7 Such is the case, in particular, of the Arbitral Award of 22 December 1963 and of the Decision Interpreting the Award, of 28 June 1964 (Revue generate de droit inter national public, t 69, 1965, p. 259) case appropriate safeguards may also be contemplated. But it can easily be conceded that a great number of “transshipments” carried out in third countries do not belong to these categories and that, consequently, the authorisation to effect them is a right and gives rise to neither compensation nor safeguards.
This interpretation cannot be objected to on the ground that it results in the establishment of two separate regimes of “transshipment”, one for the territory of the Parties and another for third countries. Such an objection would be ill-founded in law.[19] The two regimes do not have the same legal basis; it is for the two Parties alone to give the rules applicable in either case the same legal basis and, possibly, the same content.
One of the ways open to the Parties to the 1946 Agreement was to adopt, at a favourable juncture, by an exchange of letters or by even less formal means, a number of rules governing change of gauge in third countries. It would appear that some understanding was reached on another issue which is also connected with the continuity and identity of air services, i.e. stop-over; but there was no such undertanding over change of gauge in third countries.[20]There is, by contrast, a practice made up of isolated cases where the French authorities defined their position with regard to flight schedules involving change of gauge in third countries. This practice appears to be in consonance with the interpretation set forth here; it should be noted, in particular, that the French authorities authorised services involving change of gauge in third countries through the substitution of a single aircraft of smaller capacity for another aircraft, as long as the long-range characteristics of the service were maintained with respect to the type of aircraft used and to the length of the service as well as to the continuity of the flight; such were in particular the conditions governing change of gauge in Rome and in Barcelona. On the contrary, wherever there was a case of fanning out a service onto several aircraft, under the pretence of “transshipment”, objections were raised and requests were refused (Shannon), or particular agreements were concluded (Exchange of Notes of 28 May 1969).
During the written and oral proceedings, the Parties considered “transshipment” above all within the context of the 1946 Agreement. With regard to the question put to the Tribunal, it is in fact the Exchange of Notes of 5 April 1960 which is specifically at issue. The actual details of the provisions of that Exchange of Notes were only summarily discussed before the Tribunal. It is sufficient for me to state that, in my view, no provision in the Exchange of Notes justifies a conclusion different from the one reached above; quite the contrary.
In conclusion, “transshipment” in London of
avions des Etats-Unis . . . autorises a desservir Paris via Londres (sans droits de trafic entre Londres et Paris) sur Ies lignes qu’ils exploitent apartir de ou a destination de la cote occidentale des Etats-Unis (French text of the Exchange of Notes of 5 April 1960).
was therefore subject to the prior consent of the French Government; negotiations were to be opened for that purpose; it was necessary to establish the precise nature of the operations contemplated under the guise of “transshipment”, as well as the precise nature of the rights which United States aircraft intended to exercise on a segment on which they had no traffic rights; France was entitled to equitable compensation and, possibly, to safeguards. But, as such, the consideration that the aircraft which replaced another aircraft in London had a smaller capacity is only one element in the negotiations and not necessarily the most important one.
It is in that sense, in my view, that Question (A) should have been answered.
(Signed) Paul Reuter
AFFAIRE CONCERNANT L’ACCORD RELATIF AUX SERVICES AERIENS DU 27 MARS 1946 ENTRE LES ETATS-UNIS D’AMERIQUE ET LA FRANCE
Sentence arbitrale du 9 decembre 1978
Caracterisation des questions de faits et des questions de droit—Distinction a etablir entre i’application de la regie de l’epuisement des recours internes dans les cas de protection diplomatique et I’applieation de cette regie dans les cas de dommage direct d’Etat a Etat — Importance du projet d’article 22 de la Commission du droit international sur la res- ponsabilite des Etats pour ce qui est de determiner la nature de la regie de I epuisenient des recours internes—Affirmation du principe qu’un traite doit etre lu dans son ensemble et que Ton ne saurait determiner sa signification sur la base de quelques phrases qui, detachees de leur contexte, peuvent etre interpreters de plusieurs manieres—Interpretation du concept de “service continu” aux lins de determiner les ruptures de charge (change- ments de dimension d’appareils) autorisees ou interdites sur un parcours aerien determine—Examen des droits de cinquieme liberie au regard de la question des ruptures de charge—Importance de la Convention relative a l’Aviation ci lie Internationale signee a Chicago le 7 decembre 1944 dans ^application du principe de la liberie de I air” par opposition au principe de la souverainete nationale d’un Etat sur 1 espace aerien au-dessus de son territoire. pour ce qui est de determiner le droit de proceder a des ruptures de charge sur le territoire d’un Etat tiers—Importance de la disposition sur la rupture de charge figurant dans I’Accord des Bermudes de 1946 entre les Etats-Unis et le Roaume-Um—Valeur a donner a la preuve de la pratique des parties a un traite dans I interpolation du traite— Examen du concept de “contie-mesures” et de la regie connee de la “propoiiionna- lite”—Teneur appropriee de l’obligation de negoeier et du deoir de ne pas aggravei un differend, el question connexe des mesures conservatoires
Sentence Arbitrale[21]M. Willem Riphagen, President; MM. Thomas Ehrlich, Paul Reuter. Arbitres. M. Lucius Caflisch, Greffier.
En 1’affaire relative a I’Accord aerien du 27 mars 1946 entre la Republique frangaise, representee par:
M. Guy Ladreit de Lacharriere, Ministre plenipotentiaire, Directeur des Affaires juridiques au Ministere des Affaires etrangeres, comme Agent; M. Noel Museux, Magistrat, Directeur adjoint des Affaires juridiques du Ministere des Affaires etrangeres, M. Henry Cuny, Secretaire des Affaires etrangeres. Direction des Affaires juridiques du Ministere des Affaires etrangeres, comme Agents adjoints; assistes par: M. Gilbert Guillaume, Maitre des requetes au Conseil d’Etat, M. Michel Virally, Professeur des facultes de droit. Universite de Paris, M. Emmanuel du Pontavice, Professeur des facultes de droit, Universite de Paris, comme Conseils; M. Robert
Esperou, Directeur des transports aeriens (aviation civile), M. Jean-Baptiste Valle, Chef de service a Air France, comme experts; Mille Solange Challe, comme Secretaire;
Et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique, represents par:
M. Lee R. Marks, Conseiller juridique adjoint du Departement d’Etat, comme Agent; Mme Judith Hippler Bello, Departement d’Etat, Mme Lori Fisler Damrosch, Departement d’Etat, comme Agents adjoints; M. James R. Atwood, Deputy Assistant Secretary pour les affaires de transports, Departement d’Etat, M. William A. Kutzke, Conseiller juridique adjoint en matiere de droit international, Departement des transports, M. Peter B. Schwarzkopf, Conseiller juridique adjoint pour les affaires internationales, Civil Aeronautics Board, comme Conseillers; M. Norman P. Seagrave, Pan American World Airways, Inc., comme Expert-conseiller; Mile Cozetta D. Johnson, Departement d’Etat, comme Secretaire;
Le Tribunal, ainsi compose, rend la Sentence arbitrate suivante:
Par un Compromis d’arbitrage signe le 11 juillet 1978, dont le texte est reproduit ci-dessous, au paragraphe 9, les Gouvernements de la Republique franjaise et des Etats-Unis d’Amerique ont soumis au Tribunal arbitral, dans sa composition indiquee ci-dessus, les questions suivantes:
A) Un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis a-t-il le droit, en vertu de l’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la Cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a Taller et sur un plus gros avion au retour)?
B) Dans les circonstances de l’espece, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait-il le droit d’entreprendre Taction qu’il a entreprise en application de la Section 213 des reglements economiques du Civil Aeronautics Board?
Le Compromis prevoit que “[1] a decision du Tribunal sur [la question A)] sera obligatoire” et que, en ce qui concerne la question B), “le Tribunal rendra, conformement a [‘article X de l’Accord[22], un avis consultatif qui ne sera pas obligatoire”. II dispose en outre que les Parties echangeront des memoires le 18 septembre 1978 au plus tard et des contre-memoires jusqu’au 6 novembre 1978. II precisg enfin que la procedure orale aura lieu a Geneve (Suisse) les 20 et 21 novembre 1978.
Le 4 septembre 1978, le Gouvernement frangais a nomme M. Guy La- dreit de Lacharriere en qualite d’Agent en cette affaire. M. Lee R. Marks a ete designe comme Agent des Etats-Unis d’Amerique le 18 septembre 1978.
Le Tribunal arbitral s’est reuni a Geneve les 17 et 18 novembre 1978 et, apres avoir consulte les Parties, a designe M. Lucius Caflisch comme son Greffier. La seance inaugurale a eu lieu le 17 novembre 1978 a la salle de l’Alabama de 1’Hotel de Ville de Geneve.
Les Memoires et Contre-Memoires ayant ete deposes dans les delais presents, 1’affaire s’est trouvee en etat le 6 novembre 1978.
Le Tribunal arbitral a tenu des audiences les 20 et 21 novembre 1978, durant lesquelles ont ete entendus en leurs plaidoiries, dans l’ordre convenu entre les Parties et agree par le Tribunal: pour le Gouvemement de la Republique fran^aise, M. Ladreit de Lacharriere, Agent, et MM. Guillaume et Virally, Conseils, et, pour le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis d’Amerique, M. Marks, Agent.
Dans la procedure orale, les Conclusions finales suivantes ont ete presentees par les Parties:
Au nom du Gouvemement de la Republique franqaise:
PJaise au Tribunal Arbitral:
1°) Sur la question A)
Dire et juger que le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis etait tenu, avant d’agir sur le plan international en recourant a )’arbitrage, d’attendre que la compagnie americaine qui s’estirne atteinte par l’acte pretendument illicite reproche au Gouvemement frangais ait epuise les voies de recours ouvertes en droit fran^ais; que ces voies de recours n’ayant pas ete epuisees, le Tribunal arbitral n’est pas en mesure de statuer sur la question qui lui a ete posee;
A titre subsidiaire:
Dire et juger que, pour les motifs ci-dessus exposes, le Tribunal arbitral doit ajourner sa decision sur la question A) jusqu’au moment ou la compagnie Pan American World Airways aura, soit obtenu la reconnaissance par les tribunaux fran?ais des droits qu’elle reclame, soit epuise, sans obtenir satisfaction, les voies de droit qui lui sont ouvertes en droit frangais;
A titre tout a fait subsidiaire:
Dire et juger qu’un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis n’a pas le droit, en vertu de 1’accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a Pallet et sur un plus gros au retour);
2°) Sur la question B)
Dire et juger que, dans les circonstances de Tespece, le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis n’avait pas le droit d’entreprendre Taction qu’il a entrepnse en application de la Section 213 des reglements economiques du Civil Aeronautics Board.
Au nom du Gouvemement des Etats-Unis:
Se fondant sur le Memoire et le Contre-Memoire des Etats-Unis, y compris les pieces y jointes, et sur les plaidoiries prononcees a Geneve les 20 et 21 novembre 1978, y compris les huit pieces soumises par les Etats-Unis au cours des audiences, les Etats-Unis de- mandent respectueusement au Tribunal de rendre la decision suivante:
—Repondre affirmativement a la question A),
—Decliner de repondre a la question Bj ou, dans l’altemative, repondre affirmativement a cette question[23].
Les faits
1. Un Echange de notes du 5 avril 1960 portant sur I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens conclu entre les Etats-Unis d’Amerique et la France le 27 mars 1946 autorise les transporteurs aeriens designes par les Etats-Unis a desservir Paris via Londres (sans droits de trafic entre Londres et Paris) sur les lignes qu’ils exploitent a partir de ou a destination de points sur la cote Ouest des Etats-Unis[24]. Un transporteur ainsi designe, Pan American World Airways (ci-apres: Pan Am), avait exploite par intermittence des services sur cette ligne jusqu’au 2 mars 1975.
- Le 20 fevrier 1978, conformement a la legislation frangaise prevoyant que les programmes de vols doivent etre deposes 30 jours a l’avance, la Pan Am informa le service frangais competent, la Direction generate de 1’Aviation civile (ci-apres D.G.A.C.), de son projet de re- prendre, a partir du ler mai 1978, l’exploitation du service cote Ouest-Lon- dres-Paris (sans droits de trafic entre Londres et Paris) avec six vols par se- maine dans chaque direction. L’exploitation de ce service devait comporter une rupture de charge, a Londres, d’un avion Boeing 747 a un plus petit ap- pareil, un Boeing 727, a Taller, et d’un Boeing 727 a un plus gros avion, un Boeing 747, au retour.
- Le 14 mars 1978, la D.G.A.C. refusa d’approuver le projet de la Pan Am pour le motif que celui-ci comportait une rupture de charge sur le territoire d’un Etat tiers et etait ainsi contraire a la section VI de l’Annexe a l’Accord relatif aux services aeriens de 1946, puisque cette disposition ne regie que les ruptures de charge sur le territoire des Parties Contractantes[25]. Le 22 mars 1978, l’Ambassade des Etats-Unis a Paris demanda au Ministere frangais des Affaires etrangeres de revenir sur la decision de la D.G.A.C.; puis la question fit l’objet de discussions et d’echanges diplomatiques entre les deux Parties, les Etats-Unis soutenant que la rupture de charge a Londres envisagee par la Pan Am etait compatible avec l’Accord relatif aux services aeriens de 1946 alors que la France faisait valoir qu’elle ne l’etait pas et reservait son droit de prendre des mesures appropriees.
- Les ler et 2 mai 1978, quand la Pan Am reprit pour la premiere fois son nouveau service cote Ouest-Londres-Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres, la police frangaise se borna a etablir de simples proces-verbaux relatifs a ces vols, qu’elle considerait comme etant non autorises. Un autre vol ayant ete effectue le 3 mai, l’appareil Boeing 727 de la Pan Am fut entoure par la police frangaise des son arrivee a l’aeroport de Paris-Orly, et le commandant de bord regut pour instruction de retourner a Londres sans avoir debarque les passagers ou le fret. Les vols de la Pan Am furent alors suspendus.
- Le 4 mai, les Etats-Unis proposerent de soumettre la question a un arbitrage obligatoire, etant entendu que la Pan Am serait autorisee a pour- suivre ses vols en attendant que la sentence arbitrale soit rendue. Le 9 mai, le Civil Aeronautics Board des Etats-Unis (ci-apres denomme C.A.B.) rendit une premiere Ordonnance declenchant la phase 1 prevue a la section 213 de ses Reglements economiques; cette Ordonnance exigeait que les compagnies frangaises Air France et Union de transports aeriens (U.T.A.) deposent, dans des delais determines, tous leurs programmes de vols exis- tants a destination et en provenance des Etats-Unis ainsi que tout nouveau programme. Apres avoir vainement tente de faire suspendre ou modifier cette Ordonnance par le C.A.B. ou les tribunaux des Etats-Unis, les deux compagnies s’y soumirent le 30 mai 1978 en deposant leurs programmes de vols.
- Pendant ce temps, l’Ambassade de France a Washington avait, par note du 13 mai 1978, pris acte de rinterruption des vols de la Pan Am a destination de Paris et avait informe le Departement d’Etat des Etats-Unis de l’acceptation par la France du “principe du recours a l’arbitrage”. En meme temps, l’Ambassade s’etait elevee contre la mesure unilaterale qui avait ete decretee par l’Ordonnance du C.A.B. alors que la voie des negociations directes n’avait pas ete epuisee; elle avait propose que de telles negociations fussent engagees et avait note que les voies de recours internes prevues par le droit frangais n’avaient pas ete epuisees; elle avait enfin appele l’attention du Departement d’Etat sur le fait que si les autorites americaines persistaient dans la voie des mesures unilaterales, il en resulterait “des consequences dommageables pour les compagnies aeriennes frangaises, ce qui creerait un contentieux supplemental de legalite et d’indemnisation”.
- Le 18 mai 1978, la Pan Am demanda au Tribunal administratif de Paris l’annulation pour exces de pouvoir de la decision prise par la D.G.A.C. le 14 mars 1978, decision qui refuse d’approuver le programme de vols de la Pan Am. Cette instance suit actuellement son cours. Le 31 mai, la Pan Am introduisit une requete tendant au sursis a execution de la decision du 14 mars 1978. Cette requete fut rejetee le 11 juillet pour le motif que l’execution de la decision en cause n’etait pas de nature a creer un prejudice irreparable.
- Entre-temps, le 31 mai 1978, le C.A.B. avait edicte une seconde Ordonnance fondee sur la section 213 de ses Reglements economiques. Cette Ordonnance, que le President des Etats-Unis pouvait suspendre ou an- nuler dans les dix jours et qui devait devenir applicable le 12 juillet, visait a empecher Air France d’exploiter ses trois vols hebdomadaires a destination et en provenance de Los Angeles et Paris via Montreal aussi longtemps que la Pan Am serait empechee d’exploiter son service cote Ouest-Londres-Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres.
- La seconde Ordonnance fondee sur la section 213 ne fut toutefois pas appliquee. Des experts juristes des deux Parties s’etant reunis les ler et 2 juin a Washington, les 28 et 29 juin a Paris et les 10 et 11 juillet a Washington, un Compromis d’arbitrage fut signe entre la France et les Etats-Unis le 11 juillet 1978. Le texte de ce Compromis est le suivant:
Compromis d’arbitrage
entre
LE GoUVERNEMENT DE LA REPUBLIQUE FRANfAlSE ET LE GoUVERNEMENT DES ETATS-UNIS D’AMERIQUE
L,e Gouvemement de la Republique franjaise et le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis d’Amerique (ci-apres denommes les Parties).
Considerant qu’il existe un differend conc.einant la ruptuie de charge au regard de I’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, signe a Paris le 27 mars 1946, tel qu’amende, et de son Annexe, telle qu’amendee (ci-apres denommes I’Accord),
Reconnaissant que les Parties n’ont pu regler ce differend au moyen de negociations;
Consideranl egalement que le Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise a souleve une question concemant la liceite de Taction entreprise par le Gouvernement des Etats- Unis en vertu de la Section 213 des reglements economiques du Civil Aeronautics Board en reponse a Taction du Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise,
Notant que les Parties ont decide de soumettre le differend concemant la rupture de charge a un tribunal arbitral aux fins de decision obligatoire;
Notant que le Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise desire soumettre au tribunal, pour avis consultatif, et conformement a I’Article X de l’Accord, la question de la liceite de Taction entreprise par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis;
Notant qu’en acceptant de recourir a 1’arbitrage en ce qui concerne la rupture de charge, le Gouvernement frangais se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le tribunal que tous les moyens de recours interne doivent etre epuises avant qu’un Etat ne puisse en appe- ler a 1’arbitrage conformement aux dispositions de l’Accord;
Notant egalement qu’en acceptant de recourir a 1’arbitrage en ce qui concerne la Section 213, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le tribunal que. dans les circonstances de Tespece, la question n’est pas de celles qui auraient dfl etre soumises a 1’examen d’un tribunal arbitral;
Sont convenus de ce qui suit:
1) Le tribunal arbitral (ci-apres denomme le Tribunal) se composera de trois arbi- tres. L’un sera le Professeur Paul Reuter Si, pour une raison quelconque, le Professeur Reuter se trouve dans Timpossibilite d’assurer ses fonctions, le Gouvernement frangais designera promptement un remplagant. Un autre arbitre sera M Thomas Ehrlich. Si, pour une raison quelconque, M Ehrlich se trouve dans Timpossibilite d’assurer ses fonctions, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis designera promptement un remplagant Le troisieme arbitre sera le Professeur W Riphagen, qui assumera les fonctions de President du Tribunal
2) 11 est demande au Tribunal de statuer, conformement aux regies du droit international applicables et^ en particulier, aux dispositions de [‘Accord, sur les questions suivantes:
A) Un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis a-t-il le droit, en vertu de TAccoid entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la Cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a Taller et sur un plus gros avion au retour)?
La decision du Tribunal portant sur cette question sera obligatoire
B) Dans les circonstances de Tespece, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait-il le droit d’entreprendre Taction qu’il a entreprise en application de [a Section 213 des reglements economiques du Civil Aeronautics Board?
En ce qui concerne cette question, le Tribunal rendra, conformement a [‘Article X de l’Accord, un avis consultatif qui nc sera pas obligatoire
3) Les Parties sont convenues de dispositions inteiimaires qui maintiendront un strict equilibre entre la position du Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, suivant laquelle Pan American World Airways devrait etre autorisee a pratiquer la rupture de charge durant le deroulement de 1’arbitrage, et la position du Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise, suivant laquelle elle ne devrait pas pratiquer de rupture de charge pendant cette periode A cet effet, et sans prejudice de la position de Tune ou I’autre des Parlies a cet arbitrage, a dater du present compromis jusqu’au 10 decembre 1978, Pan American World Airways sera autorisee a exploiter un service de la Cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres jusqu’a concurrence de 95 vols Londres-Paris dans chaque direction. Ces vols peuvent etre programmes au gre de la compagnie aenenne, a condition cependant qu’aucun service de ce genre ne soit exploite avant le 17 juillet et qu’un maximum de six vols par semaine dans chaque direction soit respecte.
Le Tribunal aura competence, en tout etat de cause, pour prescrire, a la demande de Tune ou I’autre des Parties, toutes autres mesures provisoires necessaires pour proteger les droits des Parties Une Partie peut formuler une telle demande dans ses exposes ecrits, au cours de la procedure orale ou posterieurement a celle-ci, ent tant que de besoin
A la signature du present compromis, le Civil Aeronautics Board des Etats-Unis annu- lera immediatement tous les ordres emis en application de la Section 213 de ses reglements economiques (Ordres 78-5-45, 78-5-106, 78-6-82 et 78-6-202)
4) Chaque Partie sera representee devant le Tribunal par un agent Chaque agent pourra nommer un ou plusieurs adjoints pour agir a sa place et etre assiste de conseils, d’experts, et du personnel qu’il jugera necessaires. Chaque Partie communiquera a l’autre Partie et aux membres du Tribunal les nom et adresse de son agent et du ou des adjoints de celui-ci.
5) Le Tribunal designera un greffier, apres consultation avec les deux agents
6) A) La procedure se composera d’exposes ecrits et d’audiences, “B) Les exposes ecrits se limiteront aux documents suivants’
i) Mjn memoire, qui sera soumis par chaque Partie a l’autre Partie le 18 septembre 1978 au plus tard;
ii) un contre-memoire, qui sera soumis par chaque Partie a l’autre Partie le 6 novembre 1978 au plus tard.
Quatre copies certifiees conformes de chaque document seront soumises promptement au greffier.
C) Le Tribunal pouna reporter les dates limites susmentionnees a la requete de 1’une ou l’autre des Parties pour des raisons valables, a condition que le report des dates limites ne depasse en aucun cas un total de deux semaines. Le Tribunal pourra, a son gre, deman- der des exposes ecrits complementaires.
D) Les audiences se tiendront a Geneve (Suisse) les 20 et 21 novembre 1978 ou en tout autre lieu dont les Parties seraient convenues, a 1’endroit et au moment a fixer par le President du Tribunal.
7) A) Les Parties presenteront au Tribunal leurs exposes ecrits et plaidoiries en lan- gue fran^aise ou anglaise.
B) Le Tribunal assurera les services d’interpretation simultanee des plaidoiries et conservera un compte rendu integral de toutes les audiences en frangais et en anglais
8) A) Sous reserve des dispositions du present compromis, le Tribunal decidera de sa propre procedure et de toutes les questions relatives a la conduite de I’arbitrage,
B) Toutes les decisions du Tribunal seront prises a la majorite,
C) Le Tribunal pourra engager les services techniques et de secretariat et s’assurer tous autres services et materiel qu’il jugera necessaires.
9) Le Tribunal s’efforcera de rendre sa decision sur la rupture de charge et de rendre une avis consultatif sur la Section 213 des que possible et au plus tard le 10 decembre 1978. A cet effet, le Tribunal siegera de la date d’ouverture des audiences jusqu’a ce qu’il ait rendu sa decision et son avis consultatif. Si besoin est, le Tribunal pourra le 10 decembre ou avant cette date rendre un decision et un avis consultatif se limitant au dispo- sitif, en formulant des directives suffisamment claires pour permettre aux Parties d’appliquer ladite decision; le Tribunal communiquerait ensuite des que possible le texte complet de sa decision et de son avis consultatif. Un exemplaire du texte de la decision et de l’avis consultatif, signe pai les trois arbitres, sera transmis immediatement a chacun des agents.
10) Tout differend entre les Parties quant a 1’interpretation de la decision ou de l’avis consultatif sera soumis aux fins d’eclaircissement au Tribunal a la requete de 1’une ou l’autre Partie dans les 60 jours qui suivront la reception de la decision ecnte et de l’avis.
11) A) Une copie de tous les exposes ecrits des Parties, de la decision et de l’avis consultatif du Tribunal et de tous eclaircissements ecrits portant sur lesdits avis et decision sera soumise par le Tribunal a l’Organisation international de l’Aviation civile,
B) Une copie des comptes rendus integraux de toutes les plaidoiries en frangais et en anglais sera soumise par le Tribunal a l’Organisation internationale de l’Aviation civile.
C) Nonobstant les dispositions des alineas 11A) et 1 IB), les documents consideres et designes comme etant de nature confidentielle par une Partie et les passages pertinents
de tout expose ecrit ou de toute piece y afferents seront traites confidentiellement par les deux Parties et par le Tribunal et ne devront pas etre soumis par le Tribunal a l’Organisation intemationale de 1’Aviation civile.
12) A) La remuneration des trois arbitres, leurs frais de deplacement et toutes depenses generales entratnes par 1’arbitrage seront supportes a egalite par les Parties Cha- cun des trois arbitres consignera le detail de son temps et de ses depenses et en rendra compte et le Tribunal consignera le detail de toutes les depenses generales et en rendra compte Les Parties conviendront du montant des remunerations et procederont a des consultations entre elles et le President du Tribunal concemant toutes les questions relatives aux remunerations et depenses.
B) Chaque Partie supportera les depenses encourues par elle pour I’elaboration et la presentation de ses positions.
13) Les dispositions des Articles 59, 65 a 78 inclus, 81 et de I’alinea 1 de I’Article 84 de la Convention pour le reglement pacifique des Conflits intemationaux du 18 octobre 1907 s’appliqueront a toute question non reglee par le present compromis
14) Le present compromis entrera en vigueur a la date de sa signature.
- Au cours de Faudience du 21 novembre 1978, en reponse a une question qui leur avait ete posee, les Agents des deux Parties convinrent que, s’il le desirait, le Tribunal arbitral pouvait depasser la date du 10 decembre 1978 fixee au point 9 du Compromis d’arbitrage comme date limite pour le prononce du dispositif de la sentence, afin de pouvoir rendre une sentence complete, etant entendu que celle-ci devra intervenir aussitot que possible.
Resume des arguments des Parties.
1. Question A
a) La question preliminaire
- Au sixieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis, la France s’est reserve le droit de faire valoir que les moyens de recours internes n’ont pas ete epuises. La France soutient que la regie de 1’epuisement des recours internes, qui est fermement implantee dans la pratique intemationale, doit s’appliquer a la situation visee a la question A parce que celle-ci a trait a un differend portant sur des regies conventionnelles qui ont pour but specifique de proteger les droits des particuliers—les entreprises de transport aerien designees—plutot que ceux des Etats-Unis en tant que tels. Cet argument s’appuie sur les termes de l’Accord de 1946 relatif aux services aeriens entre la France et les Etats-Unis aussi bien que sur le libelle du Compromis d’arbitrage[26]. L’article X de l’Accord de 1946, qui prevoit que tout differend “relatif a 1’interpretation ou a l’application dudit Accord ou de son annexe qui ne pourrait etre regie par voie de negociations directes … “[27] sera soumis a un tribunal arbitral, ne saurait etre interprete comme derogeant a la regie de 1’epuisement des recours internes. Comme la Pan Am a demande au Tribunal administratif de Paris d’annuler la decision du 14 mars 1978, et comme cette instance suit actuellement son cours, le Tribunal arbitral ne peut, du moins pour le moment, statuer sur la question A.
- D’apres les Etats-Unis, la regie de Tepuisement des recours internes ne s’applique pas aux differends ou, comme c’est le cas en l’espece, un Etat fait valoir que ses droits propres ont ete violes. Elle ne s’applique pas davantage aux differends dans lesquels cet Etat affirme que ce sont a la fois ses droits propres et ceux de ses ressortissants qui ont ete leses; dans de telles situations, les droits appartenant a l’Etat l’emportent. Tel est precisement le cas en l’espece: les droits litigieux font l’objet d’un accord international entre la France et les Etats-Unis en application duquel les Etats- Unis ont designe un transporteur—la Pan Am—dont les droits sont egalement touches par la decision du 14 mars 1978. Quoi qu’il en soit, disent les Etats-Unis, la regie des recours internes est ecartee par 1’article X de I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens de 1946. Enfin, cette regie serait de toute fagon inapplicable puisque, d’apres les Etats-Unis, le droit frangais n’offre aucune voie de recours efficace: 1’interpretation donnee a une obligation conventionnelle de la France par le Ministre frangais des Affaires etrangeres ne saurait etre modifiee par les tribunaux administratifs frangais.
b) Le fond
- Les Etats-Unis font valoir que la section VI de 1’Annexe a I’Accord de 1946s7 limite le droit de chacune des Parties de proceder a des ruptures de charge sur le territoire de l’autre, mais non sur le territoire de pays tiers. Selon les Etats-Unis, la rupture de charge a Londres est compatible avec l’objectif fondamental de I’Accord de 1946, objectif qui est enonce a la section IV de l’Annexe[28] et qui consiste a assurer des voyages aeriens “aux plus bas tarifs compatibles avec de sains principes economiques”; la realisation de cet objectif serait mise en echec si les transporters designes par les Etats-Unis se voyaient refuser les moyens les plus efficaces pour exploiter les routes convenues. La rupture de charge a Londres envisagee par la Pan Am (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a Taller et sur un plus gros avion au retour) est egalement compatible avec les principes concernant la capacite enonces a la section IV; des modifications relatives a Texploitation, qui sont compatibles avec les principes du trafic, qui n’affectent pas les droits de trafic et qui sont accomplies dans des pays tiers sur des routes convenues ne devraient pas concerner l’autre Partie. Cette interpretation est confirmee par 1’histoire des negociations de I’Accord de 1946. Ce dernier est caique sur I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens conclu le 11 fevrier 1946 entre les Etats-Unis et le Royaume-Uni (premier Accord des Bermudes). Cet Accord, comme I’Accord entre la France et les Etats- Unis, se bornait a reglernenter les ruptures de charge effectuees sur le territoire des parties contractantes; il etablit ainsi un compromis entre la these du Royaume-Uni, favorable a la reglementation de toutes les ruptures de charge, et celle des Etats-Unis, favorable a une liberte totale dans ce do- maine. Dans leur Accord, qui est du meme type que le premier Accord des Bermudes, les Etats-Unis et la France sont eux aussi convenus de reglernenter les ruptures de charge sur leurs territoires respectifs mais non sur le territoire de pays tiers. L’interpretation de l’Accord de 1946 preconisee par les Etats-Unis est enfin confirmee par la pratique intemationale constante relative a cet Accord aussi bien que par la maniere dont d’autres Etats ont applique des accords aeriens bilateraux appartenant au type du premier Accord des Bermudes.
14. La France soutient que la Convention de Paris de 1919 et la Convention de Chicago de 1944 relative a 1’aviation civile Internationale recon- naissent la souverainete des Etats sur 1’espace aerien au-dessus de leur territoire et que, en consequence, les accords bilateraux relatifs aux services aeriens conferant des droits de trafic aerien doivent recevoir une interpretation restrictive; cela signifie que, lorsqu’un accord n’autorise pas expressement des ruptures de charge—tel est le cas de la section VI de l’Annexe a l’Accord de 1946 en ce qui concerne les ruptures de charge en pays tiers—il faut considerer que celles-ci sont interdites. Cette interpretation, qui correspond au texte clair et au sens naturel de la section VI et qui se traduit par une application de l’adage “expressio unius est ex- clusio alterius”, est confirmee par I’application des principes generaux en matiere d’interpretation des traites. Cela est vrai non seulement pour la regie qui a deja ete mentionnee et qui prescrit que les regies conventionnelles im- pliquant des limitations de souverainete doivent etre interpretees restrictive- ment, mais aussi pour le principe suivant Iequel l’objet et les regies fonda- mentales d’un accord doivent etre pris en consideration. En premier lieu, l’Accord de 1946 a pour objet de conferer aux Parties des droits specifiques et limites sur une base de reciprocity, de sorte qu’une interpretation restrictive s’impose; l’octroi d’avantages economiques supplementaires, tels que le droit a une rupture de charge en pays tiers, necessiterait de nouvelles negociations. En second lieu, certaines regies fondamentales qui sont conte- nues a la section IV de l’Annexe a l’Accord et auxquelles la section VI (rupture de charge) fait une reference expresse, confirment 1’interpretation restrictive a laquelle on etait deja parvenu. Cela est notamment vrai pour la constatation que les Parties “desirent provoquer et encourager la plus large distribution possible des avantages procures par les voyages aeriens”, pour le principe suivant Iequel les entreprises designees d’une Partie qui exploited des routes autorisees prendront en consideration les interets des entreprises de I’autre Partie exploitant tout ou partie de la meme route, pour la regie selon laquelle les services aeriens offerts devront correspondre “aux besoins du public en matiere de transport aerien”—et des ruptures de charge peuvent effectivement incommoder le public—ainsi que pour les principes relatifs a la capacite contenus a la lettre cl, qui prevoit notamment que les services fournis par une entreprise designee
auiont pour objet essentiel d’offrir une capacite correspondant a la demande de trafic entre le pays auquel ressortit I’entrepnse et le pays dessetvi en dernier lieu.
Une rupture de charge a Londres sur la ligne cote Ouest-Paris avec un trans- bordement d’un avion Boeing 747 a un avion Boeing 727 signifie que la capacite offerte correspond a la demande de trafic sur le segment San Fran- cisco-Londres plutot qu’a celle existant pour le service San Francisco-Paris pris dans son ensemble. La France ajoute qu’une interpretation stricte de la section VI de l’Annexe a I’Accord de 1946 est egalement justifiee lorsqu’on se refere a la doctrine et a la conduite ulterieure des Parties a I’Accord.
2. Question B
a) La question preliminaire
- Au septieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis, les Etats- Unis ont reserve le droit de faire valoir que, “dans les circonstances de l’espece, la question n’est pas de celles qui auraient du etre soumises a l’examen d’un tribunal arbitral”. Les Etats-Unis concluent que le Tribunal arbitral devrait s’abstenir de repondre a la question B. Un premier argument invoque a l’appui de cette Conclusion est que ni la France ni des entreprises frangaises n’ont subi de prejudice du fait des mesures prises par les Etats- Unis en application de la section 213 des reglements economiques du C.A.B. L’Ordonnance du 9 mai 1978 a oblige Air France et U.T.A. a deposer leurs programmes existants et leurs nouveaux programmes dans certains delais, tout comme les entreprises des Etats-Unis sont tenues de soumettre regulierement leurs programmes aux autorites frangaises. L’Ordonnance du 31 mai 1978, qui devait interdire a Air France d’exploiter ses trois vols hebdomadaires Paris-Los Angeles, a ete annulee avant qu’elle ne devienne effective. II en resulte que, aucun service aerien frangais n’ayant ete limite par les deux Ordonnances, la France n’a subi aucun dom- mage. Un deuxieme argument avance par les Etats-Unis est fonde sur la regie suivant laquelle les tribunaux internationaux auxquels une fonction ju- diciaire a ete conferee ne devraient pas agir lorsque, comme c’est le cas en l’espece, il n’y a pas de litige reel et effectif dont la decision peut affecter les rapports existants entre les Parties. Un troisieme argument est que le probleme vise a la question B n’a pas fait l’objet des negociations prevues a l’article X de I’Accord de 1946. Pour terminer, les Etats-Unis repondent a un argument frangais qui sera decrit plus loin (paragraphe 16), argument selon lequel les deux Ordonnances du C.A.B. auraient ete deliberement maintenues au cours des negociations pour amener la France a accepter un reglement obligatoire de la question A, a donner son accord a une procedure acceleree et a consentir aux dispositions interimaires qui figurent maintenant au Compromis. Les Etats-Unis relevent que ces solutions ont ete adoptees, non pas a la suite de pressions injustifiees, mais parce que la France elle aussi etait convaincue qu’un arbitrage obligatoire etait le meilleur moyen pour resoudre la question A, que les interets en cause necessitaient une solution rapide et que le regime interimaire etabli par le Compromis apparaissait equitable.
- En reponse au premier argument avance par les Etats-Unis, la France fait valoir qu’elle cherche a obtenir reparation pour le dommage moral qui resulte pour elle de la violation du droit international, en particu- lier de la violation de I’Accord de 1946, que constituent les mesures prises par les Etats-Unis. De plus, dit la France, les Ordonnances du C.A.B. ont cause un dommage materiel aux entreprises frangaises. Enfin, elle pretend que les deux Ordonnances ont ete deliberement maintenues par les Etats- Unis au cours des negociations dans le but d’amener la France, qui souhaitait limiter ses engagements aux seules obligations etablies par 1’article X de l’Accord de 1946 (reglement a titre consultatif), a accepter un reglement obligatoire de la question A, a donner son accord a une procedure acceleree et a consentir aux dispositions interimaires qui figurent maintenant au Compromis. Quant au deuxieme argument des Etats-Unis—le defaut d’un litige reel vu 1’absence de dommages—la France insiste sur le fait qu’elle reclame la reparation du dommage moral qui lui a ete inflige, que la reparation reclamee consiste en une declaration et que, dans des cas de ce genre, les tribunaux internationaux sont habilites a rendre des jugements declaratoires meme en l’absence de tout dommage materiel, ce qui n’est pas le cas en l’espece. Enfin, la realite de l’interet francais est demontree par le fait que tant l’Accord de 1946 que la section 213 des Reglements economiques du C.A.B. continuent a etre en vigueur, de sorte que la section 213 pourrait a tout moment servir de base a de nouvelles mesures dirigees contre la France, soit dans le cadre de la presente affaire, soit dans d’autres situations. La France rejette aussi le troisieme argument des Etats-Unis—le pretendu non-respect de l’exigence de negociations contenue a l’article X de l’Accord—en faisant remarquer que si les negociations n’ont pas ete aussi etendues qu’on aurait pu l’esperer, cela est du a la position rigide adoptee par les Etats-Unis au cours de ces negociations. De plus, les Etats-Unis auraient du formuler leur objection avant la conclusion du Compromis; la disposition figurant au septieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis est beaucoup trop generale pour etre comprise comme une reference a l’obligation de negociations prealables. Ayant ainsi accepte de soumettre la question B a 1’arbitrage, les Etats-Unis ne sont plus recevables a soutenir que la question n’est pas de celles qui peuvent etre examinees par le Tribunal arbitral.
b) Le fond
17. D’apres la France, les Ordonnances du C.A.B. des 9 et 31 mai 1978 sont injustifiees; peu importe, selon elle, que ces Ordonnances soient qualifiees de represailles ou analysees sous Tangle du droit des traites, dans le cadre de Yexceptio non adimpleti contractus. Pour ce qui est de la these des represailles, la France fait d’abord remarquer que la decision du 14 mars 1978, n’etant pas contraire a l’Accord de 1946, ne pouvait justifier des represailles. Quoi qu’il en soit, on ne peut, selon la France, recourir a des represailles qu’en cas de necessite, c’est-a-dire en l’absence d’autres moyens juridiques permettant de mettre fin au differend; il est evident que cette condition n’etait pas remplie puisque l’article X de l’Accord de 1946 prevoit de tels moyens. En outre, la procedure de represailles aurait du etre precedee d’une sommation infructueuse, telle qu’elle est exigee par le droit international. Enfin, les mesures prises par les Etats-Unis etaient disproportionnees. D’une part, elles portaient atteinte a des droits non contestes des entreprises francaises, prevus a l’Accord de 1946, alors que le droit du transporteur designe des Etats-Unis d’effectuer une rupture de charge a Londres est un droit conteste; d’autre part, l’application de l’Ordonnance du C.A.B. du 31 mai 1978 privant Air France de ses trois vols hebdomadaires Paris-Los
Angeles aurait entraine un prejudice economique depassant de loin celui subi par la Pan Am a la suite de la decision du 14 mars 1978. Si la question est consideree sous Tangle du droit des traites, il faut relever que la suspension de dispositions conventionnelles par Tune des Parties n’est permise que si l’autre Partie a precedemment viole le traite, ce que la France nie avoir fait. De plus, la violation dont il s’agit doit etre substantielle, c’est-a-dire consis- ter en un rejet non autorise du traite ou se rapporter a une disposition essen- tielle pour la realisation de l’objet ou du but du traite; en l’espece, ni Tune ni l’autre de ces conditions n’etaient remplies. De plus, meme si elles Tavaient ete, la suspension n’aurait pu avoir lieu que si l’Etat lese n’avait dispose d’aucun moyen pour assurer le respect du traite; Tarticle X de I’Accord de 1946 demontre que tel n’etait pas le cas en l’espece.
18. D’apres les Etats-Unis, Taction prise par le C.A.B. etait justifee sous Tangle de la theorie des represailles aussi bien que sous celui du droit des traites, car tous les deux exigent la violation prealable d’une obligation internationale. Une telle violation resultait de Taction entreprise le 3 mai 1978 par la France a Taeroport d’Orly et du refus persistant de la France d’autoriser la Pan Am a assurer un service avec rupture de charge, et ce independamment du point de savoir si l’existence du droit revendique par les Etats-Unis a ete ou non confirmee par un tribunal arbitral. Les mesures prises par les Etats-Unis ne devraient pas etre considerees comme mettant fin a I’Accord de 1946 ou comme suspendant Tapplication de celui-ci, mais plutot comme des demarches visant a retirer aux entreprises francaises un nombre limite de droits correspondant aux droits qui ont ete refuses au transporter des Etats-Unis. Quoi qu’il en soit, le comportement de la France constitue une violation “serieuse” ou “substantielle” de I’Accord de 1946, comme le demontrent les pertes subies par la Pan Am a la suite de la perturbation de ses plans d’exploitation. Les Etats-Unis rejettent Targument frangais selon lequel la theorie des represailles aussi bien que le droit des traites interdiraient toute contre-mesure lorsqu’il existe d’autres moyens d’obtenir satisfaction. La theorie des represailles presentee par la France, si elle est exacte, s’etend aux seules represailles armees; elle ne pourrait etre appliquee a la situation presente qu’a partir du moment ou les mecanismes juridictionnels internationaux auront evolue jusqu’au point ou il existe des tribunaux internationaux institutionnalises investis du pouvoir de prendre des mesures conservatoires immediates; s’il en etait autrement, rien ne pousse- rait l’Etat defendeur a contribuer a une conduite expeditive de la procedure d’arbitrage. L’Analyse des regies du droit des traites aboutit a une conclusion semblable. Quant a Targument frangais fonde sur Tabsence de propor- tionnalite, les Etats-Unis relevent que, sur le plan des faits, le service assure par Air France correspond a peu pres au service cote Ouest-Paris que la Pan Am se proposait de reprendre; de plus, les entreprises frangaises ont neglige la possibilite de se plaindre aupres du C.A.B. en ce qui concerne la portee des contre-mesures envisagees. Les deux services sont aussi equivalents sur le plan juridique, car, contrairement a ce que pretend la France, il peut y avoir proportionnalite entre un service qui est conteste et un service qui ne Test pas.
Questions preliminaires
- Au sixieme et au septieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis d’arbitrage, il est dit
qu’en acceptant de recourir a 1’arbitrage en ce qui concerne la rupture de charge, le Gouvernement frangais se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le Tribunal que tous les moyens de recours interne doivent etre epuises avant qu’un Etat ne puisse en appeler a 1’arbitrage conformement aux dispositions de l’Accord,
et
qu’en acceptant de recourir a 1’aibitrage en ce qui conceme la Section 213, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le Tribunal que, dans les circonstances de l’espece, la question n’est pas de celles qui auraient du etre soumises a 1’examen d’un tribunal arbitral.
- Les Conclusions finales pertinentes des Parties, telles qu’elles ont ete formulees a l’audience du 21 novembre 1978, sont ainsi redigees:
Pour la France:
Plaise au Tribunal arbitral:
1°) Sur la question A
Dire et juger que le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis etait tenu, avant d’agir sur le plan international en recourant a 1’arbitrage, d’attendre que la compagnie americaine qui s’estime atteinte par 1’acte pretendument illicite reproche au Gouvernement frangais ait epuise les voies de recours ouvertes en droit frangais; que ces voies de lecours n’ayant pas ete epui- sees, le Tribunal arbitral n’est pas en mesure de statuer sur la question qui lui a ete posee;
A titre subsidiaue:
Dire et juger que, pour les motifs ci-dessus exposes, le Tribunal arbitral doit ajoumer sa decision sur la question A |usqu’au moment ou la compagnie Pan American World Airways aura, soit obtenu la reconnaissance par les tribunaux frangais des droits qu’elle reclame, soit epuise, sans obtenir satisfaction, les voies de droit qui lui sont ouvertes en droit frangais:
Pour les Etats-Unis:
les Etats-Unis demandent respectueusement au Tribunal de , . . : Decliner de repondre a la question B . , ,m
- A premiere vue, les paragraphes du preambule ainsi que les Conclusions reproduites ci-dessus semblent se contredire particulierement lorsqu’ils sont consideres dans le contexte du Compromis pris dans son ensemble.
- Au paragraphe 2 du Compromis, les Patties demandent au Tribunal, d’un commun accord, “de statuer . . . sur les questions suivantes” et, a la premiere phrase du paragraphe 9, un delai tres precis et tres court est im- parti au Tribunal pour “rendre la decision sur la rupture de charge et . . . rendre un avis consultatif sur la Section 213”: la decision et l’avis consultatif doivent etre rendus le 10 decembre 1978 au plus tard; le meme delai figure au paragraphe 3, qui traite des dispositions interimaires. Apparemment, les Parties au Compromis souhaitaient qu’une decision soit rendue sur les deux questions, et ce dans un laps de temps plus court que celui qui aurait ete necessaire pour que puissent etre remplies les conditions definies dans les ecritures et plaidoiries concernant les questions preliminaries.
- En l’espece, il ne s’agit nullement, en fait, d’une affaire ou une Partie saisit unilateralement un tribunal d’une reclamation fondee sur Particle X de I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens[29]. Au contraire, les deux Parties, d’un commun accord, demandent au Tribunal de “statuer . . . sur les questions” qu’elles ont elles-memes formulees et auxquelles il doit etre repondu, aux termes du paragraphe 2 du Compromis, “conformement aux regies du droit international applicables et, en particulier, aux dispositions de I’Accord” (souligne par le Tribunal).
- C’est dans ce contexte que le Tribunal doit se prononcer sur les demandes formulees par les deux Parties dans leurs Conclusions finales re- produites ci-dessus.
- Dans ses Conclusions relatives a la question A, la France de- mande au Tribunal de dire qu’il “… n’est pas en mesure de statuer sur la question …” parce que la Pan Am n’a pas epuise “les voies de recours ouvertes en droit frangais”, ou au moins d’ajoumer sa decision jusqu’a ce que la Pan Am ait epuise ces voies de recours.
- A cet egard, il convient de relever que, comme cela ressortira de la partie de la presente Sentence relative a la question A, il n’est pas necessaire pour le Tribunal de statuer sur une question se rapportant a un fait quelconque dont la realite pourrait faire l’objet d’un differend entre les Parties. La question A, telle qu’elle a ete formulee d’un commun accord par les Parties, est uniquement une question de droit la reponse a cette question devra decouler de 1’interpretation de regies de droit international, en particulier de regies contenues dans un traite “etablissant des regies expressement reconnues par les Etats en litige” (article 38 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice).
- II n’est pas demande au Tribunal, pour ce qui est de la question A, d’etablir si l’existence d’un fait ou d’une situation quelconque constitue ou non une violation d’une obligation intemationale, et encore moins de se prononcer sur “la nature ou l’etendue de la reparation due pour la rupture d’un engagement international” (article 36 du Statut de la Cour intemationale de Justice).
- Comme l’a declare le Tribunal arbitral pour l’Accord sur les dettes exterieures allemandes dans sa Sentence en l’affaire Confederation suisse c. Republique federate d’Allemagne (nc 1), du 3 juillet 1958,
Dans la doctrine et la jurisprudence de la Cour permanente de Justice intemationale et de la Cour intemationale de Justice, ainsi que dans la pratique en matiere de traites, 1’application de la regie de 1’epuisement des recours internes ne peut etre envisagee qu’en relation avec la question de la responsabilite intemationale d’un Etat pour un acte contraire au droit ( , . ) commis sur son territoire envers un ressortissant d’un autre Etat, et pour le refus de reparer cet acte, c’est-a-dire pour un deni de justice ( . . ) (Tribunal d’Arbitrage et Commission Mixte de l’Accord sur les Dettes exterieures allemandes, Recueil des Juge- ments et des Avis consultatifs 1958, p, 18 )
- II a toutefois ete soutenu que, meme si la question posee au Tribunal est formulee comme une pure question de droit, independante de toute situation de fait existante, c’est en realite un ensemble precis de faits com- portant des actes de la Pan Am et des autorites frangaises (communication de la Pan Am aux autorites aeronautiques frangaises et reponse a cette communication; atterrissage de l’appareil de la Pan Am a Orly le 3 mai 1978; agissements de la gendarmerie frangaise du meme jour) qui est a l’origine de la question A soumise a la decision du Tribunal. A ce propos, on a egalement fait remarquer que le paragraphe 3 du Compromis relatif aux dispositions interimaires vise un transporteur aerien determine—la Pan Am—et un comportement determine de cette compagnie pendant la periode allant de la date de la signature du Compromis au 10 decembre 1978.
- Le Tribunal n’estime pas que ces elements sont de nature a justi- fier 1’application de la regie de 1’epuisement des recours internes a la presente espece, application qui aurait pour effet d’empecher le Tribunal, ne serait-ce que temporairement, de rendre une decision sur la question A. II est peu probable, bien naturellement, que les gouvernements de deux Etats s’engagent dans un differend d’ordre juridique s’il n’existe aucune situation de fait qui souleve d’une maniere ou d’une autre des questions de droit international. De meme, si ces gouvernements conviennent de dispositions interimaires en attendant le reglement du differend, les dispositions en cause prescriront probablement un comportement determine, qu’il s’agisse du comportement de personnes privees physiques ou morales ou de celui d’organes etatiques a 1’egard de ces personnes. En fait, bien qu’etant avant tout congues en fonction du comportement des Etats et des rapports entre ceux-ci, les regies du droit international, comme toutes les regies de droit, portent en derniere analyse sur la realite des rapports entre des personnes, des objets et des activites envisages au sein de la societe humaine. C’est pourquoi la regie de droit international exigeant 1’epuisement des recours internes, qui etablit une distinction entre les reclamations d’Etat a Etat ou cette exigence s’applique et les demandes auxquelles elle ne s’applique pas, doit necessairement fonder cette distinction sur le caractere juridique du rapport entre Etats invoque a l’appui de la reclamation. En consequence, pour juger de 1’applicability de la regie de l’epuisement des recours internes, une distinction est generalement faite entre les “cas de protection diplomatique” et les “cas de dommage direct”.
31. Si l’on fait valoir que, en vertu de la reserve frangaise contenue au sixieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis, une distinction parallele doit etre operee dans le cas present, la question dont le Tribunal est saisi ne portant pas sur la reparation d’un dommage (ou meme simplement sur sa determination) pretendument cause a un Etat par le comportement ef- fectif d’un autre Etat, une telle distinction ne pourrait se fonder que sur le caractere juridique des regies de droit international que le Tribunal est prie et tenu d’appliquer en statuant sur la question A. A ce propos, il est signifi- catif que l’article 22 du projet d’articles sur la responsabilite des Etats, tel qu’il a ete adopte provisoirement en premiere lecture par la Commission du droit international en 1977[30], souleve l’exigence de l’epuisement des recours internes uniquement s’il s’agit d’une obligation “de resultat”, dont il ressort “que ce resultat ou un resultat equivalent peut neanmoins etre acquis par un comportement ulterieur de l’Etat” et qui est une obligation “concernant le traitement a reserver a des particuliers etrangers”. Independamment du choix effectue dans ce projet d’article en ce qui concerne la qualification de la regie de l’epuisement des recours internes comme une regie de “procedure” ou comme une regie de “fond”—question que le Tribunal considere comme etant sans pertinence en l’espece—il est evident que le caractere juridique des regies de droit international a appliquer dans le cas present est fondamentalement different de celui des regies visees dans le projet d’article cite ci-dessus. En fait, l’article premier de I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens dispose que “[l]es Parties Contractantes s’accordent 1’une a l’autre les droits specifies a 1’Annexe ci-jointe …” (souligne par le Tribunal), et les sections 1 et 11 de 1’Annexe se referent toutes deux au “droit de faire assurer par une ou plusieurs entreprises frangaises de transport aerien [entreprises de transport aerien des Etats-Unis] designees par [cet Etat], des services aeriens …” en tant que droit ac.corde par un gouvemement a l’autre gouvemement. De plus, il est evident que l’objet et le but d’un accord relatif aux services aeriens tel que celui-ci sont I’exploitation de services de transport aerien, 1’obligation correspondante des Parties consis- tant en un devoir d’admettre cette exploitation plutot qu’en une obligation tendant a assurer un “resultat”; encore moins consiste-t-elle en une obligation dont il ressort qu’un “resultat equivalent” peut etre acquis au moyen d’un comportement posterieur au refus d’admettre l’exploitation. Pour les besoins de la question ici examinee, il existe une difference substantielle entre 1’obligation pour un Etat d’accorder a des etrangers admis sur son territoire un traitement correspondant a un certain standard, d’une part, et, d’autre part, l’obligation pour un Etat d’admettre l’exploitation de services de transport aerien a destination, a partir et au-dessus de son territoire. Dans le dernier cas, en raison de la nature meme des services intemationaux de transport aerien, aucune alternative pouvant normalement etre consideree comme “equivalente” ne peut se substituer a l’autorisation effective d’exploiter de tels services.
- Se fondant sur les considerations qui precedent, le Tribunal est d’avis qu’il est “en mesure de statuer sur la question qui lui a ete posee” et qu’il ne doit pas
ajoumer sa decision sur la question A jusqu’au moment ou la compagnie Pan American World Airways aura, soit obtenu la reconnaissance par les tribunaux frangais des droits qu’elle reclame, soit epuise, sans obtenir satisfaction, les voies de droit qui lui sont ouvertes en droit frangais.
- Passant maintenant au dernier paragraphe du preambule du Compromis et la Conclusion finale des Etats-Unis demandant au Tribunal de “… [decliner de repondre . . .” la question B, le Tribunal rappelle d’abord ses observations generales anterieures relatives a la contradiction que renfer- ment ce paragraphe et cette Conclusion et au contexte dans Iequel le Tribunal doit etudier les objections des Etats-Unis tendant a etablir que la question relative a la section 213, “dans les circonstances de l’espece, . . . n’est pas de celles qui auraient du etre soumises a l’examen d’un tribunal arbitral”.
- En fait, les objections des Etats-Unis selon lesquelles a) les mesures prises par les Etats-Unis en vertu de la section 213 n’ont pas porte prejudice a la France ou aux entreprises de transport aerien frangaises, b) les Parties ne se sont pas consultees au sujet de la question de la section 213, et c) il n’y a pas de litige reel a trancher, doivent etre appreciees ici encore dans le contexte du Compromis dans son ensemble, y compris notamment les paragraphes 2, B et 3.
- Au paragraphe 2 du Compromis, il est demande au Tribunal “de statuer . . . sur les questions suivantes …” (souligne par le Tribunal); cette reference englobe la question B, qui est ainsi libellee: “Dans les circonstances de l’espece, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait-il le droit d’entreprendre … ?” (souligne par le Tribunal). L’opinion du Tribunal, qui sera exprimee dans un avis consultatif, aura 1’effet prevu a l’article X de l’Accord.
- D’autre part, le paragraphe 3 du Compromis, qui a trait aux dispositions interimaires convenues entre les Parties, dit notamment ceci:
A la signature du present compromis, le Civil Aeronautics Board des Etats-Unis annu- lera immediatement tous les ordres emis en application de la Section 213 de ses reglements economiques ( , . ).
37. Dans ces circonstances, le Tribunal est d’avis que les objections elevees contre un avis consultatif relatif a la question B doivent etre examinees dans un contexte qui est sensiblement different de celui ou un tribunal arbitral ou une cour internationale aurait a se prononcer sur une requete unilaterale d’une Partie a un differend visant a faire etablir s’il y a effectivement eu violation d’une obligation internationale et a faire determiner les consequences d’une telle violation.
- En particulier, le fait que, en vertu du paragraphe 3 du Compromis, des Ordonnances pertinentes du C.A.B.—notamment l’Ordonnance 786-82, telle qu’elle a ete modifiee par l’Ordonnance 78-6-202—ont ete annulees avant de devenir applicables est, de l’avis du Tribunal, sans pertinence pour la reponse a donner a la question B, car cette derniere ne peut se rapporter qu’aux actes accomplis par les Etats-Unis avant la date de la signature du Compromis.
- Le Tribunal n’estime pas qu’il y ait lieu d’exprimer un avis sur la question de savoir si les Ordonnances du C.A.B. qui etaient anterieures, soit les Ordonnances 78-5-45 (ordre de deposer des programmes de vols) et 785-106 (ordre refusant la demande de sursis a execution), et qui ont produit des effets avant d’etre annulees, ont porte prejudice a la France ou aux entreprises de transport aerien frangaises; il est en effet clair que les autres Ordonnances, si elles etaient envisagees dans le cadre de la question B, c’est-a- dire independamment de leur annulation en vertu du Compromis et apres sa signature, causeraient un tel prejudice.
- La question relative a 1’exigence de negociations prealables enoncee a l’article X de I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens devrait etre consideree dans le meme contexte. Meme si les discussions entre les Parties portant sur Paction entreprise par les Etats-Unis en application de la section 213 etaient peu poussees et peut-etre plus limitees dans le temps que celles consacrees a la question de la rupture de charge, traitee lors des memes discussions, elles ont en fait eu lieu. A ce propos, il faut tenir compte du fait que, par leur nature, les deux questions etaient en realite etroitement liees: la question de la section 21.3, en raison du libelle meme de la disposition legislative pertinente aussi bien que des Ordonnances, est fondee sur une pretendue violation par la France de ses obligations en matiere de rupture de charge.
- Enfin, et toujours dans le contexte defini ci-dessus, le Tribunal estime que les arguments avances et les precedents invoques par les Etats- Unis a l’appui de la these selon laquelle le droit ne permet aux tribunaux de trancher que des “litiges reels” entre les Parties, ne sont pas directement applicables a l’espece. Tout au long des discussions qui ont abouti a la signature du Compromis, la demande d’arbitrage relative a la question B a ete liee a la demande d’arbitrage portant sur la question A. Le lien entre les deux problemes ressort egalement de fagon claire du paragraphe 3 du Compromis. Les deux questions portent en fait sur le but et l’objet de I’Accord relatif aux services aeriens entre les Parties, a savoir sur le droit de la France et des Etats-Unis d’exploiter des services aeriens sur les routes mentionnees aux Tableaux I et II (etendus par l’Echange de notes du 5 avril 1960).
- Dans ces conditions, le Tribunal manquerait a ses devoirs en refu- sant de donner son avis sur la question B.
Question A
- La premiere question sur laquelle le Tribunal doit rendre une decision est la suivante:
Un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis a-t-il le droit, en vertu de l’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la Cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a 1 ‘alter et sur un plus gros avion au tetour)?
La decision du Tribunal sur cette question sera obligatoire.
- Pour repondre a la question A, le Tribunal a d’abord examine les termes de l’Accord se rapportant expressement a la rupture de charge. En l’absence d’une reponse claire fondee uniquement sur ces termes, le Tribunal s’est ensuite refere a 1’ensemble des dispositions de l’Accord. Cette analyse a conduit a une conclusion provisoire concemant une reponse a la question A. Le Tribunal a ensuite verifie cette conclusion en tenant compte a la fois du contexte general de l’aviation civile intemationale dans Iequel l’Accord a ete negocie et de la pratique des Parties relative a l’application de l’Accord. L’analyse revele que ni le contexte general ni la pratique des Parties ne sont incompatibles avec la conclusion provisoire fondee sur l’ensemble du texte de l’Accord. Le Tribunal a enfin procede a un examen limite de la pratique relative a l’application d’accords de services aeriens semblables a celui entre la France et les Etats-Unis, cela uniquement dans le but de s’assurer que cette pratique ne revele pas une conception fondamen- talement differente de celle de la conclusion provisoire du Tribunal. Ayant ainsi procede par etapes, le Tribunal a constate que sa conclusion etait fondee et devait effectivement servir de base a sa reponse a la question A. Ci-apres, chacune de ces etapes va faire 1’objet d’un examen relativement detaille.
1. La partie de l’Accord se rapportant a la rupture de charge
- La seule disposition de l’Accord se rapportant expressement a la rupture de charge est la section VI de l’Annexe[31]. La section VI dispose:
a) Au sens de la presente Section 1’expression “rupture de charge” a une escale donnee signifie qu’au-dela de ce point le trafic sur la ligne consideree est assure par la meme entreprise avec un appareil different de celui qui a ete utilise sur la meme ligne avant ladite escale
b) Toute rupture de charge justifiee par des raisons d’economie d’exploitation sera ad- mise en tout point du territoire des deux Parties Contractantes mentionne aux tableaux ci- annexes.
c) Toutefois aucune rapture de charge ne pourra intervenir sur le territoire de 1’une ou l’autre des Parties Contractantes dans les cas ou elle modifierait les caracteristiques de l’exploitation d’un service long-courrier, ou setait incompatible avec les principes enonces dans le present Accord et son Annexe et particulierement la Section IV de Iadite Annexe.
- Par ses termes, la section VI ne porte ainsi que sur les ruptures de charge (ou sur d’autres formes de transbordement) intervenant a l’interieur du territoire de 1’une des Parties. Elle ne s’applique pas a des situations, telles que celle envisagee a la question A, ou un transporteur souhaite proceder a une rupture de charge sur le territoire d’un pays tiers, sur 1’une des routes visees par I’Accord. Quelles implications peut-on tirer de l’absence de toute reference dans I’Accord a des ruptures de charge en pays tiers?
- Le Gouvemement frangais a soutenu qu’il fallait interpreter ce silence comme excluant toute rupture de charge d’un transporteur de 1’une des Parties, a moins qu’elle ne soit expressement approuvee par le Gouvemement de l’autre Partie. Le Gouvemement frangais fait valoir qu’aucune concession d’un droit de proceder a une rupture de charge en pays tiers n’existe implicitement, eu egard surtout au fait qu’un seul type de situation prevoyant une rupture de charge est expressement vise par la section VI. Le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis prend la position opposee. Pour lui, une rupture de charge en pays tiers est toujours permise, et aucune interdiction ne saurait decouler implicitement de I’Accord. Le Gouvemement des Etats- Unis soutient que la section VI implique au contraire que les seules restrictions auxquelles est soumise la rupture de charge sont celles qui ont trait au territoire des Parties. A l’exterieur du territoire des Parties, affirme-t-il, celles-ci peuvent proceder a une rupture de charge sans restriction.
- De l’avis du Tribunal, aucune de ces deux positions extremes ne saurait veritablement etre deduite de la section VI isolee des autres termes de I’Accord. II est necessaire, au contraire, de s’en remettre au texte de I’Accord dans son ensemble. Comme la Cour permanente de Justice internationale l’a indique dans son Avis consultatif du 12 aout 1922 relatif a la Competence de I’ Organisation internationale du Travail,
il faut evidemment lire [le Traite] dans son ensemble, et l’on ne saurait determiner sa signification sur la base de quelques phrases detachees de leur milieu et qui, separees de leur contexte, peuvent etre interpretees de plusieurs manieres (Publications de la C.P.J I , serie B, n° 2, p. 22);
voir aussi 1’Arbitrage aerien entre la France et les Etats-Unis de 1963 (Revue generate de droit international public, t. 69, 1965, pp. 229-230).
2. Le texte de I’Accord dans son ensemble
- L’article premier de I’Accord stipule que
C’est done aux termes de l’Annexe qu’il faut se reporter pour examiner les droits des Parties et les limitations auxquelles ces droits sont soumis,
- Aux sections I et II de l’Annexe, les deux Parties s’accordant mu- tuellement “le droit de faire assurer . . . des services aeriens” sur les routes designees dans les tableaux annexes[32]. Dans le cas present, les textes pertinents sont le Tableau II et l’Echange de notes du 5 avril I960[33].
- La section III prevoit que chacune des Parties accordera a I’autre des droits Iiinites sur son propre territoire: le “droit de transit”, le “droit d’escales pour raisons non commerciales” et le “droit de debarquer et d’embarquer en trafic international”[34].
- La section IV enonce les lignes directrices fondamentales qui regissent la capacite sur les routes autorisees. Suivant ses termes, les deux Parties desirent encourager les voyages aeriens “pour le bien general de l’humanite, aux plus bas tarifs compatibles avec de sains principes economiques”; chacune des Parties prendra en consideration les interets du transporteur de I’autre Partie concemant les services sur les mSmes parcours; les services devront “correspondre aux besoins du public en matiere de transport aerien”; et, ce qui est peut-etre le plus important, les services auront “pour objet essentiel d’offrir une capacite correspondant a la demande de trafic entre le pays dont ressortit 1’entreprise et le pays desservi en dernier lieu.” Enfin, les droits des transporters de chacune des Parties d’embarquer et de debarquer des passagers sur le territoire de l’autre Partie sont soumis a une nouvelle serie de principes directeurs[35].
53. La section V a trait aux tarifs a appliquer par les transporters des Parties. La section VI a, bien entendu, deja ete examinee. La section VII permet des modifications de routes par 1’une des Parties sur le territoire de pays tiers — mais pas sur le territoire de l’autre Partie — les seules exigences etant la notification sans delai et la possibility d’une concertation si celle-ci est demandee”. La section VIII, enfin, prevoit l’echange rapide d’informations entre les Parties[36].
- Considere dans son ensemble, le texte de l’Accord est significatif par ce qu’il omet de dire aussi bien que par ce qu’il dit. II garde le silence sur la plupart des problemes importants qui se posent a une entreprise pour la gestion des services aeriens—les types d’avions a utiliser, le nombre des membres de l’equipage, etc. Lors de la mise en service des avions a reaction, par exeinple, des personnes peu familieres avec l’Accord auraient pu penser qu’un nouvel accord serait necessaire. En fait, cependant, l’Accord de 1946 n’a pas ete modifie lors de 1’introduction de cette innovation technique remarquable. De meme, les objections formulees recemment a l’encontre des avions supersoniques ont ete fondees, non sur les termes de l’Accord, inais uniquement sur des considerations touchant a la preservation de l’environnement. Ce qu’il convient de retenir ici, c’est que l’Accord laisse aux Parties—et a leurs transporters designes si elles en decident ainsi — la liberte de decider une vaste gamme de questions essentielles qui portent sur presque tous les aspects de l’exploitation de services sur des routes designees, a l’exception des questions relatives aux tarifs et a la capacite.
- L’Accord prevoit des exceptions a cette conception fondamentale, mais ces exceptions ont pour l’essentiel trait a la reglementation, par une Partie, d’activites ayant lieu sur son territoire. La section VII de l’Annexe prevoit, par exemple, qu’une Partie peut proceder a des modifications des routes decrites, sous reserve de leur notification et de la possibility de consultations, sur le territoire de pays tiers, mais non sur celui de I’autre Partie.
- La section VI de l’Annexe, comme il a ete dit, se rapporte uniquement a la rupture de charge sur le territoire de l’une des Parties. En soi, cela est comprehensible lorsqu’on considere l’Accord dans son ensemble. II est tout a fait raisonnable d’etablir une distinction entre des activites sur le territoire d’une Paitie et des activites sur le territoire de pays tiers. Chaque Partie est naturellement plus preoccupee de ce qui se passe sur son propre territoire que de ce qui se passe ailleurs. Cette conception permet d’assurer, dans le cadre d’un reseau mondial d’accords bilateraux de services aeriens, que les activites a 1’interieur de chaque territoire sont reglementees avant tout par les pays le plus directement interesses.
- Quels sont les elements qui se degagent de cet examen de l’ensernble du texte de l’Accord en ce qui concerne la question A? En premier lieu, il parart evident pour le Tribunal qu’aucune des deux positions extremes en matiere de rupture de charge n’est acceptable. D’une part, cer- taines ruptures de charge en pays tiers doivent etre permises. Lorsqu’un ap- pareil a des ennuis mecaniques, par exemple, un transbordement est evidemment necessaire, et il se peut qu’un appareil de meme dimension ne soit pas disponible. De meme, des transporters qui operent sur des routes extremement longues — notamment, ce qui est le plus evident, sur des routes qui font le tour du monde—doivent changer d’appareil en un point ou en plusieurs points, et il ne semble y avoir aucune raison pour obliger le transporteur a utiliser un appareil de meme dimension sur chaque segment de ces routes.
- D’autre part, l’Accord comporte diverses conditions se rapportant aux services assures par les transporters des Parties. La description des routes dans les tableaux equivaut a une serie de conditions. Les dispositions sur la capacite contenues a la section IV de l’Annexe en constituent une autre. Ce serait vider de leur sens les termes de I’Accord que d’admettre une rupture de charge dans le seul but de permettre a un transporteur d’agir con- trairement a une ou plusieurs de ces conditions.
- La question qu’il s’agit ainsi de resoudre est celle de savoir comment on peut distinguer les ruptures de charge permises en pays tiers des ruptures de charge interdites. Sur cette question, les termes de I’Accord mentionnes ci-dessus sont d’un grand secours. Ce qui est le plus important, c’est qu’ils se referent a des routes designees et a des services offerts sur ces routes. Les passagers peuvent embarquer et debarquer en divers points, mais I’Accord reflete de maniere constante un concept de services continus, prevus dans un programme de vols, sur une route entre un point d’origine et un point d’aboutissement. Ce concept ne figure pas expressement dans I’Accord, mais il decoule du texte lorsque celui-ci est examine dans son ensemble, en particulier de la section I de l’Annexe et des tableaux.
- Sur cette base, le Tribunal a provisoirement conclu que la rupture de charge est autorisee sur le territoire d’un pays tiers lorsque le service vise est continu et pour autant que la rupture de charge ne soit pas simplement utilisee pour assurer une serie de services distincts.
- Selon cette conception, une rupture de charge ne saurait servir de justification a des agissements non conformes aux dispositions de I’Accord et notamment aux dispositions qui se rapportent a la capacite. II n’en est pas moins vrai qu’une rupture de charge peut etre le moyen le plus approprie pour assurer le respect de certaines dispositions. La demande de trafic peut par exemple diminuer au cours d’une route tres longue. C’est evidemment le cas quand, comme en l’espece, le trafic appele trafic de cinquieme liberte est exclu. Les transporters des Etats-Unis se voient interdire l’embarquement de passagers a Londres sur la route qui relie des points de la cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris via Londres. II est done virtuellement certain que la demande de trafic sur cette route sera plus faible sur le segment Londres-Paris que sur le segment precedent.
- Bien que les termes de la section VI ne s’appliquent pas a la situation visee a la question A, ce texte peut etre pris en consideration et sem- ble etre en harmonie avec la reponse provisoire du Tribunal. Le texte de la section VI se refere specifiquement a trois criteres: en premier lieu, une rupture de charge sur le territoire d’une Partie doit etre justifiee par “des rai- sons d’economie d’exploitation”; en deuxieme lieu, elle ne doit pas modifier “les caracteristiques de I’exploitation d’un service long-courrier”; en troisieme lieu, elle ne doit pas etre incompatible avec les autres dispositions de I’Accord, en particulier les dispositions relatives a la capacite contenues a la section IV de l’Annexe.
- L’accent mis par le Tribunal sur le concept de service continu parait lie a ces criteres pris dans un sens large. L’economie d’exploitation serait naturellement un principe directeur pour des ruptures de charge qui sont compatibles avec le concept de service continu; les “caracteristiques de I’exploitation d’un service long-courrier” (e’est-a-dire les caracteristiques d’un service par opposition a celles d’un appareil determine) refletent un certain aspect de ce concept; et, comme il a ete indique plus haut, une rupture de charge ne saurait etre utilisee simplement comme un moyen permet- tant une action contraire aux dispositions de l’Accord et notamment aux dispositions de la section IV relative a la capacite.
- II s’ensuit que la reference a la section VI confirme la conclusion suivant laquelle la cle de la reponse a la question A est fournie par un concept de service continu. Une rupture de charge compatible avec ce concept est autorisee, alors qu’une rupture de charge visant a mettre en place des services essentiellement separes est exclue.
- En consequence, une rupture de charge d’un petit appareil a un appareil plus gros n’est pas permise, sur un point d’une ligne ou des droits de cinquieme liberte sont accordes, lorsque 1’experience a montre que la rupture a pour but unique d’assurer un trafic de cinquieme liberte plus important que celui qu’autorisent les principes relatifs a la capacite de la section IV. Meme si aucun droit de cinquieme liberte n’existe en un point donne, comnre c’est le cas dans la situation envisagee a la question A, une rupture de charge ne peut etre utilisee pour excuser un retard sensible dans le service, soit en fait pour transformer un service continu en une serie de services distincts.
3. Le contexte dans Iequel l’Accord a ete negocie.
- Bien que les Parties ne se soient pas rapportees a l’histoire des negociations de l’Accord en ce qui concerne la question precise examinee ici, le contexte plus large dans Iequel la negotiation de l’Accord s’est deroulee est pertinent. II n’est pas necessaire de s’arreter longuement a la Convention relative a 1’aviation civile intemationale conclue a Chicago le 7 decembre 1944, 1’instrument qui a fourni un cadre a I’expansion rapide de 1’aviation civile intemationale. Cette Convention a ete examinee de fagon assez detaillee dans VArbitrage aerien entre 1’Italie et les Etats-Unis de 1964 (Rivista di diritto internazionale, vol. 58, 1965, p. 451-453). Le point le plus important qu’il convient de relever, c’est que la Convention de Chicago a etabli les structures d’un regime international pour 1’aviation civile qui etait remarquablement ouvert et non reglemente sauf en ce qui concernait les routes, les tarifs, la capacite et le regime de certaines activites qui peuvent etre reglementees par les Etats sur leur propre territoire. Consideree dans son ensemble, la Convention de Chicago ne reflete ni le concept de la “liberie de l’air” ni celui d’une souverainete nationale d’un Etat sur I’espace aerien au-dessus de son territoire, telle qu’elle permettrait a l’Etat en cause de subordonner 1’utilisation de cet espace par des transporters etrangers a n’importe quelle condition regissant le comportement de ce transporteur avant ou apres cette utilisation. Ce contexte, par consequent, vient a l’appui de la distinction qui a ete operee ci-dessus entre les activites qui se situent dans le territoire des Parties et qui doivent en general faire l’objet d’une autorisation expresse, et les activites sur le territoire de pays tiers, qui sont en general permises en l’absence d’une interdiction specif ique.
- L’Accord des Bermudes conclu en 1946 entre le Royaume-Uni et les Etats-Unis, qui a precede I’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis de quelques mois seulement, forme lui aussi une partie du contexte pertinent, quoique la France ne soit evidemment pas liee par I’Accord des Bermudes et encore moins par l’histoire des negociations, puisqu’elle n’etait pas partie a I’Accord.
- L’histoire des negociations de I’Accord des Bermudes revele ce- pendant qu’un compromis etait intervenu entre la position initiale du Royaume-Uni, qui avait ete oppose a toute rupture de charge par un transporteur d’une Partie sans l’autorisation expresse de l’autre Partie, et la position initiale des Etats-Unis, qui etaient favorables a la rupture de charge sans restriction aucune. La disposition sur la rupture de charge qui fut finale- ment retenue” et l’histoire des negociations font clairement ressortir que I’Accord des Bermudes enonce une solution en matiere de rupture de charge qui est compatible avec l’opinion exprimee dans la presente Sentence.
4. La pratique des Parties
- Les activites exercees par les Parties pendant une certaine periode en application d’un accord international peuvent, bien entendu, etre per- tinentes, parfois meme decisives, pour 1’interpretation du texte de l’accord. En l’espece, les transporters des Etats-Unis ont procede, au cours des annees ou I’Accord a ete en vigueur, a un certain nombre de ruptures de charge en pays tiers sur des routes designees par les tableaux. Les Parties— ceci n’est guere surprenant—sont en disaccord quant au poids a attribuer a cette pratique. Dans les circonstances de l’espece, le Tribunal est d’avis que tout ce qu’on est en droit de deduire de la pratique des Parties dans son ensemble est que cette pratique ne conduit pas a une conclusion differente de
“La section V de l’Annexe a I’Accord des Bermudes, qui porte sur la rupture de charge, est ainsi redigee.
“a) Lorsque, a un stade ulterieur du parcours, le transport est assure, pour des raisons d’economie d’exploitation, par un aeronef n’ayant pas les memes dimensions que I’aeronef qui a ete employe au cours de la premiere etape du parcours (ce qui est appele dans la suite du present texte “rupture de charge”), une telle rupture de charge survenant en un point situe sur le territoire du Royaume-Uni ou sur le territoire des Etats-Unis devra etre con- forme aux principes enonces dans l’Acte final de la Conference de l’Aviation civile tenue aux Bermudes du 15 Janvier au 11 fevrier 1946 et, en particulier, tenir compte de l’existence d’un volume convenable de trafic direct
“b) Dans le cas ou une rupture de charge interviendrait en un point situe sur le territoire du Royaume-Unr ou le territoire des Etats-Unis, I’aeronef le plus petit n’operera en liaison qu’avec I’aeronef le plus grand arrivant au point ou s’effectue la rupture de charge, de maniere a assurer normalement un service de correspondance, a l’arrivee de I’aeronef le plus grand, pour permettre, avant tout, aux passagers voyageant dans I’aeronef le plus grand a destination du territoire du Royaume-Uni ou du territoire des Etats-Unis de pour- suivre leur voyage dans I’aeronef le plus petit S’il y a des places libres dans I’aeronef le plus petit, elles pouriont etre donnees a des passagers venant du territoire du Royaume-Uni ou du territoire des Etats-Unis respectivement II est bien entendu que la capacite de charge de I’aeronef le plus petit sera determinee essentiellement par le volume de trafic transports par I’aeronef le plus grand qui doit normalement faire 1’objet d’un nouveau transport.
“. . .” (Nations Unies, Recueil des Traites, vol 3, p. 253)
celle provisoirement adoptee par le Tribunal sur la base du texte de l’Accord et confirmee par le contexte general dans Iequel l’Accord a ete negocie.
- Les Etats-Unis ont egalement invoque les milliers de ruptures de charge qui ont eu lieu en vertu d’autres accords internationaux de services aeriens auxquels ils etaient ou sont Paitie. Quelques-uns de ces accords con- tiennent des dispositions semblables a celles de l’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis, alors que d’autres en different considerablement.
- Le Tribunal hesiterait beaucoup a tirer des conclusions definitives de cette pratique, du moins sans un examen detaille de chaque accord et de la pratique pertinente des Parties, examen auquel il n’a pas ete possible de proceder en raison du temps limite dont a dispose le Tribunal. Dans ces conditions, tout ce qu’on peut dire, c’est que cette pratique ne parait pas etre contraire a la maniere dont le Tribunal a resolu le probleme.
Question B
- A titre preliminaire, le Tribunal doit presenter deux series d’observations portant les premieres sur la question posee et les secondes sur “les circonstances de l’espece”.
- En ce qui concerne tout d’abord la question posee, il est absolu- ment certain que le Tribunal arbitral n’a pas a examiner la compatibility de principe de l’ensemble du regime institue par le systeme de la section 213 des Reglements economiques du C.A.B. avec les obligations internationales des Etats-Unis; encore moins doit-il apprecier les avantages et les inconvenients d’un systeme qui constitue, en matiere de transports aeriens, l’application d’une formule a laquelle les Etats-Unis ont souvent recouru dans leurs relations economiques avec l’etranger.
- II doit seulement examiner si, dans les circonstances de l’espece, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a viole ses obligations internationales par Vaction qu’il a entreprise dans la periode qui a immediatement precede la conclusion du Compromis d’arbitrage. II est egalement bien evident que la regularite de Taction entreprise doit etre examinee independamment de la reponse donne a la question de fond relative a la violation alleguee de l’Accord de 1946. II s’agit d’etablir aujourd’hui si le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis a viole ses obligations internationales par Faction entreprise, meme si Ton supposait que posterieurement a cette action il a ete etabli de maniere a lier le Gouvernement frangais que celui-ci avait, avant Taction des Etats-Unis, viole l’Accord de 1946.
- Le deuxieme groupe d’observations porte sur “les circonstances de Tespece”, expressement visees par la presente question. Celles-ci presented certains aspects generaux qu’il est necessaire de rappeler som- mairement. Le plus sensible est peut-etre la grande incertitude qui a marque les relations des Parties entre elles et avec la compagnie en question en ce qui conceme l’objet du differend, les fins poursuivies par elles, et meme la portee exacte de leurs positions. Une telle situation engendre facilement des suspicions, des craintes et des maladresses qui risquent d’aggraver le differend. Les fait que la compagnie interessee a ignore les objections des autorites frangaises, portees a sa connaissance par la lettre du 14 mars 1978, en atterrissant sur le territoire francais, les mesures prises par la gendarmerie frangaise a Orly le 2 mai et les mesures subsequentes decidees par le C.A.B. montrent clairement une “escalade” dans le conflit.
- Les rapports entre les compagnies aeriennes et leurs gouvemements nationaux sont complexes; celles-la sont juridiquement distinctes de ceux-ci et s’opposent meme parfois a leur action; mais elles sont par ailleurs sous bien des aspects sous la dependance juridique des gouvemements et agissent souvent en etroite liaison avec eux.
- L’intention premiere de la Pan Am telle qu’elle resulte de sa lettre du 5 octobre 1977 etait de proceder a un reamenagement de ses services qui pouvait soulever des questions de principe. Le refus des autorites frangaises d’approuver ces services ne fut cependant suivi—semble-t-il—d’aucune de ces consultations qui auraient ete pour chacune des autorites interessees la suite normale de cette demarche selon l’article VIII de I’Accord de 1946. La Pan Am presenta ensuite la demande plus limitee qui est a 1’origine du con- flit en la motivant par des raisons techniques transitoires qui auraient pu ap- peler peut-etre une approbation pour une duree limitee. Le refus frangais de 1978 posait avec acuite une question de principe non resolue expressis verbis par le texte de I’Accord, c’est-a-dire la rupture de charge en pays tiers. Selon les documents soumis au Tribunal, il n’apparait pas qu’en plus de 30 ans d’application de I’Accord les Parties aient au moins discute entre elles cette question de principe. De quoi s’agit-il done alors? De la solution d’un probleme technique provisoire? De la definition d’une regie dont les Parties avaient jusque-la evite de mettre en cause tant 1’existence que l’etendue? S’agirait-il vraiment d’un litige limite ou des preliminaries d’un remodelage des reseaux de transports internationaux dans cette region du monde?
- La portee de Paction entreprise par les Etats-Unis pouvait etre appreciee en des termes tres differents suivant I’objectif poursuivi : s’agissait-il du respect d’un simple principe de reciprocity mesure en termes economiques ? S’agissait-il d’une pression pour obtenir une procedure de solution plus rapide? Cette action comportait-elle, au-dela du cas de la France, un caractere exemplaire destine a d’autres pays et, dans ce cas, presentait- elle un certain caractere de sanction ? II n’est pas certain que les respon- sables des mesures prises aient procede sur ce point a des analyses tres fines; il est comprehensible que du cote frangais on ait interprete les procedures adoptees aux Etats-Unis d’une maniere qui ne correspond pas a leurs intentions.
- L’ensemble de ces circonstances caracterise une situation au cours de laquelle les Parties ont negocie et qui s’est terminee par un Compromis d’arbitrage comportant des mesures transitoires qui n’est pas soumis a l’appreciation du Tribunal.
- Ay ant rappele ainsi quelques-unes des circonstances essentielles de l’affaire, le Tribunal examinera successivement le principe meme de la legitimite des “contre-mesures” et ensuite les limites qui peuvent lui etre apportees compte tenu d’un mecanisme de negotiation ou d’un mecanisme arbitral ou judiciaire.
- Dans l’etat actuel du droit international general, abstraction faite des engagements specifiques decoulant de traites particuliers et notamment des mecanismes institues dans le cadre des organisations internationales, chaque Etat apprecie pour lui-meme sa situation juridique au regard des au- tres Etats. En presence d’une situation qui comporte a son avis la violation d’une obligation intemationale par un autre Etat, il a le droit, sous la reserve des regies generales du droit international relatives aux contraintes armees, de faire respecter son droit par des “contre-mesures”.
- D’un point de vue doctrinal, on devrait introduire ici des distinctions diverses et user d’un vocabulaire diversifie suivant differents criteres et notamment suivant que l’objet des contre-mesures porte sur l’obligation pretendument violee ou sur une obligation differente, et aussi suivant que les obligations en cause sont toutes relatives a une seule et meme convention ou que ce n’est pas le cas. Le Tribunal ne pense pas qu’il soit necessaire pour les besoins de la cause d’approfondir ces distinctions. En effet, dans le cas actuel, aussi bien la violation alleguee que la contre-mesure a comme objet direct des operations de services aeriens prevus dans l’Accord et l’Echange de notes du 5 avril 1960.
- Mais il est generalement admis que les contre-mesures doivent tout d’abord correspondre a une certaine equivalence a la violation alleguee; il s’agit la d’une regie bien connue. Au cours des debats relatifs a cette affaire, les deux Parties ont reconnu qu’elle etait applicable a Tespece et en ont invoque chacune le benefice. D’une maniere generale, on a fait observer que T appreciation de la “proportionnalite” concrete des contre-mesures n’etait pas simple et ne pouvait etre realisee que d’une maniere approximative. Selon le Tribunal, Tun des problemes essentiels est de tenir compte— dans un litige entre Etats—non seulement des dommages subis par les com- pagnies interessees, mais de Timportance des questions de principe incluses dans la violation alleguee. Dans la presente affaire, il ne suffit pas, de Tavis du Tribunal, de comparer les dommages subis par la Pan Am du fait de la suspension des services projetes et les dommages subis par les compagnies frangaises visees par les contre-mesures en cause; il faut egalement tenir compte de Timportance des positions de principe prises a Toccasion du refus des autorites frangaises, a savoir de Tinterdiction de principe des ruptures de charge. Si Ton prend en consideration Timportance de ce principe dans le cadre general de la politique des transports aeriens decidee par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis et poursuivie par la conclusion de nombreux accords in- ternationaux avec d’autres pays que la France, on ne saurait considerer que les mesures qui ont ete l’objet de Taction des Etats-Unis aient ete clairement disproportionnees a celles prises par la France. Aucune des deux Parties n’a soumis au Tribunal des elements pour fonder ou detruire cette proportionnalite, et le Tribunal doit done se contenter d’un jugement tres approximatif.
- Ce recours a des contre-mesures, contraires au droit international mais justifiees par une violation alleguee du droit international par l’Etat auquel ces mesures sont appliquees, subit-il des restrictions lorsque Ton considere que les Parties sont soumises ou bien a une obligation de negocier, ou bien a l’obligation de recourir a une solution de leur differend par la voie juridictionnelle?
- L’on pourrait etre tente de considerer que, lorsque des Parties entrant en negociation, elles ont pour obligation generale de ne pas aggraver le differend. Ce principe general serait en quelque sorte un effet de la bonne foi.
- Sans repousser—loin de la—une telle affirmation, le Tribunal considere cependant que lorsque Ton tente de preciser un tel principe, on doit tenir compte de plusieurs considerations essentielles.
- Tout d’abord, l’obligation de negocier connait aujourd’hui des formes plus ou moins qualifiees qui lui donnent un contenu plus ou moins significatif. A cote de l’obligation tres generale de recourir a la negociation institute par l’article 33 de la Charte des Nations Unies et dont le contenu se ramene a des exigences assez elementaires, il y a bien d’autres obligations mieux specifiees.
- Le Tribunal rappellera qu’aux termes de l’article VIII de I’Accord de 1946:
Dans un esprit d’etroite collaboration, les autorites aeronautiques des deux Parties Contractantes se consulteront regulierement en vue de s’assurer de I’application des principes definis au present Accord et a son Annexe et de leur execution satisfaisante
Cette disposition institue une obligation de consultation continue entre les Parties. Dans le cadre de cette obligation generale, I’Accord impose claire- ment aux Parties un devoir de s’efforcer de bonne foi de negocier la solution de questions susceptibles d’engendrer des conflits. Plusieurs autres dispositions de I’Accord et de l’Annexe prevoient une obligation de consultation dans ces cas specifiques ou l’eventualite d’un conflit serait particulierement a redouter. Enfin, l’article X impose aux Parties un devoir special de consultation au cas ou, malgre leurs efforts anterieurs, un differend surgirait.
- Mais le probleme present est de savoir si, sur la base des textes precites, des contre-mesures sont interdites. Le Tribunal pense que ni le droit international general ni les dispositions de I’Accord ne permettent d’aller jusque-la.
- En effet, il faut bien mesurer ce que represented, dans le cadre de la proportionnalite, des contre-mesures. Elles ont pour objet de reconsti- tuer l’egalite entre les Parties et de les inciter a poursuivre la negociation avec un desir mutuel d’aboutir a un resultat acceptable. Dans la presente espece, les Etats-Unis d’Amerique considerent qu’une rupture de charge est autorisee en pays tiers; cette conviction definit leur position avant que le refus frangais soit intervenu; les contre-mesures des Etats-Unis reconstituent, d’une maniere negative, la symetrie des positions initiales.
- II va sans dire qu’il y a dans le recours a des contre-mesures le grand danger qu’a leur tour elles n’engendrent une replique, provoquant ainsi une escalade generatrice d’une aggravation du conflit. Les contre- mesures devraient done etre un pari sur la sagesse et non sur la faiblesse de l’autre Partie. Elles devraient etre maniees dans un esprit de grande moderation et accompagnees d’un reel effort pour resoudre le conflit. Mais le Tribunal arbitral ne pense pas que dans l’etat actuel des relations internationales on puisse enoncer une regie qui prohibe les contre-mesures au cours d’une negociation, surtout lorsque ces contre-mesures sont accompagnees de l’offre d’une procedure permettant d’envisager d’accelerer la solution du differend.
- Cette derniere consideration presente un interet particulier lorsqu’il s’agit d’un conflit qui porte sur le fonctionnement d’un service aerien : le reseau des services aeriens constitue en effet un ensemble extremement sensible dont les perturbations peuvent avoir des consequences etendues et imprevisibles.
- Sous Tangle du mecanisme des negociations, les actions menees par le Gouvemement des Etats-Unis ne semblent done pas contraries aux obligations internationales de ce Gouvemement.
- Mais il faut encore examiner la liceite de ces contre-mesures sous un autre aspect. On peut en effet se demander si elles sont en general admis- sibles lorsqu’il s’agit d’un litige portant sur un point de droit et qu’il existe un mecanisme arbitral ou judiciaire susceptible de resoudre le differend. Beaucoup de juristes ont pense que le deroulement d’une procedure juridic- tionnelle interdisait le recours a des contre-mesures, meme limitees par la regie de la proportionnalite. Une telle affirmation merite la sympathie, mais elle appelle des precisions. Si la procedure en cause prend place dans un ensemble destitutions assurant une certaine garantie d’execution des obligations, la liceite des contre-mesures disparaitra sans doute, mais plus par suite de 1’existence de cette garantie que du seul fait de l’existence d’une procedure juridictionnelle.
- Par ailleurs, la situation n’est pas la meme si le differend ne se trouve pas encore porte devant un tribunal et si l’affaire se trouve sub judice. Tant que le tribunal n’est pas saisi, notamment parce qu’un accord entre les Parties est necessaire pour mettre la procedure en marche, l’on se trouve encore dans une periode de negociations et ce sont les regies precedemment enoncees qui s’appliquent. II est permis de regretter une telle solution, alors que les Parties ont accepte le principe d’un recours a l’arbitrage ou a la justice. Mais en l’etat du droit international tel qu’il existe actuellement, il faut constater que les Etats n’ont pas renonce dans cette hypothese a des contre- mesures, et il vaut mieux qu’il en soit ainsi si cela leur permet d’accepter plus facilement le recours a l’arbitrage ou a la justice.
- Des lors que le tribunal est en etat d’intervenir, la situation est differente. Pour autant que le tribunal dispose des moyens d’assurer les fins qui justifient des contre-mesures, on doit admettre que le droit des Parties de prendre de telles mesures disparait. Autrement dit, la faculte d’un tribunal de decider des mesures conservatoires, que cette faculte soit exprimee dans son statut ou impliquee par celui-ci (au moins sous la forme de recomman- dations portant sur cet objet), fait disparaltre la faculte de prendre des contre-mesures et peut rendre caduques des contre-mesures deja prises, pour autant que le tribunal en decide ainsi a titre de mesure conservatoire. Toutefois, comme 1’objet et l’etendue de la faculte du tribunal de decider des contre-mesures peuvent se situer dans un cadre assez etroit, la faculte des Parties de prendre ou de maintenir des contre-mesures peut egalement ne pas disparaitre dans sa totalite.
- Dans une situation visee par une disposition telle que l’article X de l’Accord aerien de 1946, modifie par l’Echange de notes du 19 mars 1951, 1’arbitrage peut etre mis en marche unilateralement. Bien que 1’arbitrage puisse ne pas aboutir a une decision obligatoire, les Parties sont tenues de faire “de leur mieux dans les limites de leurs pouvoirs legaux pour donner effet a l’avis consultatif” rendu par le Tribunal, En l’espece, les Parties ont conclu un Compromis qui prevoit une decision obligatoire pour la question A et autorise expressement le Tribunal a decider des mesures conservatoires.
- En ce qui concerne Taction entreprise dans la presente affaire par le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis, la situation est simple. Meme si 1’arbitrage prevu a l’article X de l’Accord est mis en marche unilateralement, sa mise en ceuvre risque de prendre du temps, et pendant ce temps des contre- mesures ne sont pas exclues; un Etat qui recourt a de telles mesures doit toute – fois faire tout son possible pour hater 1’arbitrage. Ceci a ete exactement la conduite du Gouvernement des Etat-Unis.
- La reponse du Tribunal a la question B est donnee par Tensemble des observations qui precedent et comporte la conclusion que le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait, dans les circonstances de Tespece, le droit d’entreprendre Taction qu’il a entreprise en application de la section 213 des Reglements economiques du C.A.B.
Par ces motifs,
Le Tribunal arbitral, donne la reponse suivante aux questions qui lui ont ete soumises:
Question A
Considerant que, aux termes du sixieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis d’arbitrage, le Gouvernement frangais,
en acceptant de recourir a 1’arbitrage en ce qui concerne la rupture de charge, se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le tribunal que tous les moyens de recours interne doivent etre epuises avant qu’un Etat ne puisse en appeler a 1’arbitrage conformement aux dispositions de l’Accord.
Considerant que la question posee est la suivante:
Un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis a-t-il le droit, en vertu de l’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a J ‘alter et sur un plus gros avron au retour) ?
Considerant que le Tribunal arbitral est ainsi appele a se prononcer sur deux points,
Le Tribunal arbitral,
En ce qui concerne le premier point,
Decide, a l’unanimite, qu’il est en mesure de statuer sur la question A;
En ce qui concerne le second point,
Decide, par deux voix contre une, que la reponse sur ce point est qu’un transporteur designe des Etats-Unis a le droit, en vertu de l’Accord entre la France et les Etats-Unis d’Amerique relatif aux services aeriens, d’exploiter un service de la cote Ouest des Etats-Unis a Paris avec rupture de charge a Londres (transbordement sur un plus petit avion a Taller et sur un plus gros avion au retoui), a la condition qu’il s’agisse d’un service continu et non de services separes.
Question B
Considerant que, aux termes du septieme paragraphe du preambule du Compromis d’arbitrage, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis,
en acceptant de recourir a 1’arbitrage en ce qui concerne la Section 213, . . . se reserve le droit de faire valoir devant le tribunal que, dans les circonstances de l’espece, la question n’est pas de celles qui auraient du etre soumises a l’examen d’un tribunal arbitral,
Considerant que la question posee est la suivante:
Dans les circonstances de l’espece, le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait-il le droit d’entreprendre [‘action qu’il a entreprise en application de la Section 2)3 des reglements economiques du Civil Aeronautics Board ?
Considerant que le Tribunal arbitral est ainsi appele a se prononcer sur deux points,
Le Tribunal arbitral,
En ce qui concerne le premier point,
Decide, a l’unanimite, de se prononcer sur la question B;
En ce qui concerne le second point,
Decide, a l’unanimite, que la reponse a donner sur ce point est que le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis avait, dans les circonstances de Tespece, le droit d’entreprendre Taction qu’il a entreprise en application de la section 213 des Reglements economiques du C.A.B.
Fait en frangais et en anglais a 1’Institut universitaire de hautes etudes internationales, a Geneve, ce 9 decembre 1978, les deux textes faisant egalement foi, en trois exemplaires originaux, dont un sera depose aux archives du Tribunal arbitral, et dont les deux autres seront transmis respec- tivement au Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise et au Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d’Amerique.
(Signe)
Willem Riphagen, President Thomas Ehrlich, Arbitre Paul Reuter, Aibitre Lucius Caflisch, Greffier
M- Paul Reuter joint a la Sentence arbitrate l’expose de son opinion dissidente.
Opinion dissidente de M. Paul, Reuter
J’ai accepte la position du Tribunal en ce qui concerne l’exception preliminaire a la question A, l’exception preliminaire et la reponse au fond a la question B; je dois presenter cependant a ce sujet certaines observations et exprimer certains doutes.
Les Parties a cet arbitrage ont souverainement determine les questions posees au Tribunal et ainsi limite la competence du Tribunal a celles-ci. Un tribunal arbitral comme celui-ci est tenu de respecter cette volonte commune. Mais il apparait clairement dans les actes de la procedure que le litige qui a oppose les Parties est plus large que les questions posees au Tribunal; le choix des questions retenues est, a mon avis, tres artificiel. Cette situation conduit a des difficultes qui ont embarrasse les Parties elles-memes, puisqu’elles ont souleve des exceptions preliminaries; des difficultes peuvent egalement apparaltre pour le Tribunal. On pouvait ainsi se demander si la difference d’autorite juridique assignee a la reponse du Tribunal donnee aux questions A et B est en harmonie avec la fonction judiciaire; on pouvait se demander aussi si, dans les circonstances de 1’affaire, 1’interet invoque par la France pour poser la question B presentait, apres le Compromis, un caractere juridique suffisant. Avec le Tribunal, j’ai repondu negativement a la question preliminaire sur la question B parce qu’un refus du Tribunal n’aurait fait que souligner une inegalite entre les Parties, visible par ailleurs.
J’ai repondu comme le Tribunal a la question B sur le fond, sous le benefice d’une observation cependant. J’accepte l’analyse juridique du Tribunal, et notamment l’idee que l’application de la proportionnalite des con- tre-mesures prenne en compte non seulement les faits realises, mais les questions de principe soulevees a cette occasion. Cependant celles-ci devraient etre prises en consideration a travers leurs effets probables. Une appreciation de la proportionnalite devrait ainsi se fonder sur l’etendue du litige reel et non sur les seuls faits dont le Tribunal est saisi. II est permis de conserver des doutes serieux sur la proportionnalite des contre-mesures des Etats-Unis, qui n’a pu etre en fait appreciee par le Tribunal sur des bases certaines.
Pour ce qui est de la reponse donnee par le Tribunal a la question A, j’ai le regret de ne pouvoir me rallier ni a la position generale du Tribunal, ni a la reponse qu’il a donnee, et je dois exposer brievement les raisons de mon dissentiment.
Deux remarques preliminaries concernent la portee de la rupture de charge et la terminologie.
Dans le sens extensif qui lui est donne par I’Accord de 1946’00, la “rupture de charge” a une portee economique tres variable, tantot nulle, tantot considerable, suivant les conditions ou elle est realisee. Si un aeronef est remplace par un autre aeronef presentant des caracteristiques generales analogues, la rupture de charge repond seulement a des considerations techniques relevant de la navigation aerienne. Si, pour un service determine, on remplace un aeronef par un autre aeronef de capacite difference, les consequences economiques peuvent etre importantes. Si le changement d’aeronef s’accompagne d’une combinaison de services (un aeronef recueil- lant le fret ou les passagers de plusieurs autres) ou d’un eclatement de services (les passagers ou le fret d’un appareil etant repartis sur plusieurs aeronefs ayant des destinations differentes), une atteinte plus serieuse est portee a l’identite et a la continuite des services aeriens, et le caractere raisonnablement lineaire des routes aeriennes long-courriers s’en trouve altere[37].
En la matiere la terminologie est tres confuse; ce ne sont pas toujours les memes expressions qui designent les memes realites, et l’on ne separe pas toujours clairement la “rupture de charge” des differentes operations qu’elle permet de realiser. Mais les interets mis en cause par ces operations peuvent etre considerables, varient d’un pays a un autre et conduisent a des solutions conventionnelles diverses, resultant de la variete des compromis d’interets.
C’est, entre autres, sur un point essentiel que je ne puis me rallier a la Sentence arbitrale : il porte sur 1’interpretation qu’il convient de donner a la volonte des Parties au regard de 1’evidente lacune de cet Accord qui reglemente formellement la rupture de charge sur le territoire des Parties et garde un silence provocant sur la rupture de charge en pays tiers.
Quand un traite entre deux ou plusieurs Parties entend reglementer d’une maniere generale une matiere determinee, on est tente de degager de ce traite des principes generaux et de reunir par cette elaboration des elements qui permettent de “combler une lacune”, de trancher des problemes non resolus formellement. Toutefois, cette methode constructive n’est autorisee que si son emploi repond vraiment a l’intention des Parties telle que l’on peut 1’etablir d’apres des indices precis et concordants. II n’en est pas ainsi lorsque le silence du traite ne releve ni de la volonte des Parties de ne pas descendre a des reglementations de detail, ni d’une imprevoyance des negociateurs, ni d’un developpement qui n’etait pas envisage au moment de la conclusion de l’Accord, mais bien de l’acceptation consciente d’un disaccord non regie se traduisant par une lacune. Peu importe que les Parties n’aient pu surmonter ce disaccord par manque de temps ou a raison de la gravite de leur opposition : la seule voie qu’elles ont Iaisse ouverte pour regler le probleme non resolu est celle d’un accord mutuel a intervenir posterieurement. On ne peut se substituer aux Parties, ni realiser, sous le couvert de principes generaux, une ceuvre quasi legislative que celles-ci, en toute connaissance de cause, n’ont pas elaboree, alors qu’elles etaient mieux que quiconque en etat de l’entreprendre. Si un tribunal arbitral ne peut, dans ce cas, meme sous couleur d’interpretation, legiferer, cela ne veut pas dire que, en attendant la conclusion d’un accord complementaire entre les Parties, la question posee reste sans reponse, mais que s’appliquent les autres regies pertinentes du droit international.
Dans la presente espece, I’Accord de 1946 consacre une disposition as- sez substantielle a la rupture de charge (section VI de l’Annexe); celle-ci est redigee de telle maniere qu’elle fait naitre chez le lecteur l’attente d’une reglementation complete portant a la fois sur la rupture de charge sur le territoire des Parties et sur la rupture de charge sur le territoire des pays tiers; mais dans son developpement, le texte se derobe a cette attente et garde le silence le plus complet sur la rupture de charge en pays tiers. Ainsi, de la structure meme du texte il resulte que ce probleme n’a pas ete ignore des negociateurs, qu’ils en ont mesure l’importance et que c’est en toute conscience qu’ils se sont abstenus de le resoudre au moment de la conclusion de I’Accord. Ayant souscrit, en vertu de Particle VIII, au principe d’une etroite collaboration et a celui de consultations regulieres, les Parties n’ont pas du considerer ce silence comme une situation definitive, mais elles ont necessairement accepte que, en attendant la conclusion d’un nouvel accord, ce soient ces regies generales anterieurement applicables entre les Parties qui continuent a s’appliquer, a savoir celles de la Convention relative a l’aviation civile internationale conclue a Chicago le 7 decembre 1944 et no- tamment la regie consacrant la souverainete complete et exclusive de chaque Etat sur l’espace aerien au-dessus de son territoire (article premier). En vertu de ces regies, le Gouvemement frangais etait appele a consentir a toutes les caracteristiques des services aeriens interessant son territoire (article 6).
II n’est pas necessaire de confirmer cette interpretation de I’Accord de 1946 par une analyse des positions et des interets respectifs des Parties au moment de la conclusion de I’Accord. II y avait une forte opposition entre les Etats-Unis, souhaitant, parce que conforme a leurs interets, une “flexibility maximale des services aeriens, et certains pays europeens qui n’etaient pas (et n’ont jamais ete9depuis) en etat de profiler en fait utilement de cette flexibilite. La France avait meme, en ce qui concerne le caractere long-courrier des services et les principes concernant la capacite, des exigences plus grandes que celles du Royaume-Uni; elles sont refletees dans l’Echange de lettres des 28/29 decembre 1945 instituant entre la France et les Etats-Unis un regime provisoire, Echange qui a precede I’Accord de 1946 et que la Sentence du 22 decembre 1963 issue de VArbitrage aerien entre la France et les Etats-Unis cite in extenso[38] elles se traduisent dans le texte meme de I’Accord de 1946, qui s’eloigne sensiblement de celui du premier Accord des Bermudes’03. L’absence d’accord sur la rupture de charge en pays tiers prend a la Iumiere de cette opposition d’interets toute sa signification. Une interpretation qui ignorerait cette absence d’accord serait non seulement injustifiee, mais elle introduirait dans 1’interpretation de l’Accord un element de desequilibre; le droit international, inspire a cet egard par le common law, montre a propos d’un autre probleme qu’il n’est pas favorable a de tels desequilibres dans le droit des traites (article 44, paragraphe 3, lettre c), de la Convention de Vienne sur le droit des traites, du 23 mai 1969). En effet, 1’ensemble de la pratique, notamment en matiere de routes aeriennes, a interprete l’Accord de 1946 d’une maniere restrictive[39], alors que l’on interpreterait d’une maniere extensive d’autres dispositions de l’Accord a l’encontre de la Partie qui ne peut pas en fait profiter de ce Iiberalisme.
Le fait que par son silence l’Accord de 1946 enregistre un disaccord des Parties sur le regime des ruptures de charge en pays tiers et les soumet par la a l’autorisation de I’autre Partie Contractante ne signifie cependant pas que celle-ci dispose d’une complete liberte de refuser cette autorisation.
En effet, il faut en premier lieu tenir compte des obligations qui pesent sur les Parties en ce qui concerne la securite aerienne et le respect des servitudes techniques de la navigation aerienne. Les libertes dont disposent les Parties a cet egard sont tellement evidentes que l’Accord de 1946 a omis de les mentionner dans la section VI de l’Annexe : elles derivent en effet des dispositions generales ou speciales (par exemple l’article 25) de la Convention de Chicago precitee.
En second lieu, pour toutes les questions concemant l’application de l’Accord, les Parties sont tenues a une etroite collaboration et a des consultations regulieres (article VIII); il en est ainsi particulierement en ce qui concerne une question sur laquelle elles ne se sont pas entendues lors de la conclusion de l’Accord. II existe done entre elles une obligation de negocier beaucoup plus etendue et qualifiee qu’une obligation de negocier ordinaire. Une telle negotiation, comme l’a souvent affirme la Cour intemationale de Justice, doit avoir un sens, e’est-a-dire elle doit rechercher par des compromis des solutions mutuellement acceptables dans le respect de cet equilibre de l’Accord dont les Parties ont fait grand cas a propos des contre-mesures prises par les Etats-Unis; de plus, dans de telles negociations les Parties sont tenues de respecter les differents objectifs de la Convention de Chicago, qui assure notamment (a son article 44, lettre/) a chaque Etat Contractant “une possibility equitable d’exploiter des entreprises de transports aeriens interna- tionaux”.
Ce ne sont pas la des obligations purement nominales. En effet, dans la perspective qu’elles commandent, le refus d’une autorisation pour rupture de charge dans un pays tiers n’est justifiable que si cette rupture de charge modifie l’equilibre des avantages que les Parties se sont mutuellement octroyes dans l’Accord, auquel cas une contrepartie raisonnable retablira cet equilibre, ou que si les interets legitimes d’une Partie subissent une atteinte sensible, auquel cas des mesures de sauvegarde appropriees pourront etre egalement envisagees. Mais il est facile d’admettre qu’un grand nombre de ruptures de charge realisees en pays tiers ne presented pas ces caracteres et que par consequent l’autorisation est de droit et n’appelle ni contreparties ni sauvegardes.
On ne saurait opposer a 1’interpretation ici retenue qu’elle conduit a instituer deux regimes differents de la rupture de charge, l’un pour le territoire des Parties et l’autre pour les pays tiers. L’objection manque en droit[40]. Les deux regimes n’ont pas la meme base juridique : l’un releve du traite et l’autre lui est exterieur; il appartient aux deux Parties et a elles seules de donner aux regies applicables dans les deux cas les memes bases juridiques et eventuellement le meme contenu.
Une des voies ouvertes aux Parties a I’Accord de 1946 consistait a adopter a un moment favorable, par voie d’echange de letttes ou meme par une methode encore moins foimelle, quelques regies concernant la rupture de charge en pays tiers; elles ont, semble-t-il, abouti a quelque entente sur un autre probleme qui touche egalement la continuity et l’identite des services aeriens, a savoir le stop-over, mais il n’en a pas ete ainsi pour la rupture de charge en pays tiers’06. II existe en revanche une pratique constitute par des cas isoles dans lesquels les autorites frangaises ont pris position rela- tivement a des programmes de vols comportant une rupture de charge en pays tiers. Cette pratique semble en harmonie avec 1’interpretation ici retenue; on releve notamment que les autorites franchises ont autorise des services comportant rupture de charge en pays tiers avec substitution d’un aeronef a un seul autre d’une capacite inferieure, mais sauvegardant les caracteres d’un service long-courrier, tant en ce qui concerne le type de I’aeronef et la longueur du service assure que la continuity du vol; tels ont ete notamment les cas de rupture de charge a Rome et a Barcelone. En revanche, des qu’il y a eu, sous couvert de la rupture de charge, un eclatement du service entre plusieurs aeronefs, des objections ont ete faites et des refus opposes (Shannon), ou bien des accords specifiques ont ete conclus (Echange de lettres du 28 mai 1969).
C’est sur le plan de la rupture de charge envisagee d’une maniere generale par rapport a I’Accord de 1946 que les Parties se sont avant tout placees au cours de la procedure ecrite et orale. En fait, en ce qui conceme la question posee au Tribunal, c’est l’Echange de lettres du 5 avril 1960 qui est specifiquement mis en cause; les caracteres propres des dispositions de ce dernier n’ont ete que sommairement discutes devant le Tribunal; il me suffira d’indiquer que, a mon avis, aucune disposition de cet Echange de let- tres ne permet de s’ecarter de la conclusion ci-dessus enoncee, bien au con- traire.
En conclusion, la rupture de charge a Londres des
avions des Etats-Unis . . . autorises a desservir Paris via Londres (sans droits de trafic entre Londres et Paris) sur les lignes qu’ils exploitent a partir de ou a destination de la cote occidenlale des Etats-Unis (texte frangais de I’Echange de lettres du 5 avril 1960)
etait done soumise a un agrement prealable du Gouvernement frangais; des negociations devaient etre ouvertes a cette fin; la nature exacte des operations envisagees sous le couvert de la rupture de charge devait etre etablie ainsi que la nature exacte des droits que les aeronefs des Etats-Unis entendaient exercer sur un segment de ligne pour Iequel ils ne beneficiaient pas de droit de trafic; des compensations equitables et eventuellement des sauvegardes pouvaient etre demandees par la France. Mais en tant que telle, la consideration que 1’aeronef substitue a Londres a un autre offrait une capacite moindre que ce dernier ne constitue qu’un des elements et pas necessairement le plus important de la negotiation.
C’est en ce sens qu’il convenait, a mon avis, de repondre a la question A.
(Signe) Paul Reuter
54 Air Services Agreement concluded between the United States of America and France on
27 March 1946. Article X of the Agreement was amended by the Exchange of Notes dated 19 March 1951
62 Translation by the Registry.
75 For the official French text, c/. Revue generate de dioit international public, t, 69, 1965, p. 189.
87 Pour le texte de la section VI, voir plus loin, paragraphe 45
89 Traduction du Greffe.
97 La section VII dispose:
“Toute modification des lignes aeriennes mentionnees aux tableaux ci-annexes qui af- fecterait le trace de ces lignes sur des territoires d’Etats tiers autres que ceux des Parties Contractantes, ne sera pas consideree comme une modification a 1’Annexe, Les autorites aeronautiques de chaque Partie Contractante pourront en consequence proceder unrlateralement a une telle modification sous reserve toutefois de sa notification sans delai aux autorites aeronautiques de l’autre Partie Contractante
“Si ces demieres estiment, eu egard aux principes enonces a la Section IV de la presente Annexe, que les interets de leurs entreprises nationales sont affectes par le fait qu’un trafic est assure entre leur propre territoire et la nouvelle escale en pays tiers par les entreprises de l’autre pays, elles se concerteront avec les autorites aeronautiques de l’autre Partie Contractante afin de parvenir a un accord satisfaisant “
100C’est dans ce sens que le terme sera employe dans la presente Opinion
“”Notamment dans la redaction de la section IV, lettre d, de l’Annexe a I’Accord et dans l’adjonction, aux conditions d’une rupture de charge sur le territoire des Parties Contractantes, de celle relative a la non-modification des “caracteristiques de I’exploitation d’un service long- courrier’ ‘, condition qui vient se rajouter au respect des ‘ ‘principes enonces dans le present Accord et son Annexe et particulierement la section IV de ladite Annexe “
[1] Translation by the Registry.
[2] Part of this Exchange of Notes is reproduced below, p 436, foot-note 67.
[3] For the full text of this provision, see below, paragraph 45
[4] The full text of the Compiomis is reproduced in paragraph 9
6Q For the full text of Article X, see below, p. 429, foot-note 63.
For the text of Section VI, see below, paragraph 45. The full text of Section IV is reproduced below, at p. 436, foot-note 69,
61 Article X of the Agreement, as amended by an Exchange of Notes of 19 March 1951, reads as follows:
“Except as otherwise provided in this Agreement or its Annex, any dispute between the Contracting Parties relative to the interpretation or application of this Agreement or its
wThis Article reads:
“When the conduct of a State has created a situation not in conformity with the result required of it by an international obligation concerning the treatment to be accorded to aliens, whether natural or juridical persons, but the obligation allows that this or an equiva-
[9] Throughout this Award, the Tribunal uses the terms “change of gauge” and “rupture de charge” to mean a change in the size of the aircraft
[10] Sections I and II of the Annex read:
‘ ‘Section I
“The Government of the United States of America grants to the Government of the French Republic the right to conduct air transport services by one or mote air carriers of French nationality designated by the latter country on the routes, specified in Schedule I attached, which transit or serve commercially the territory of the United States of America,”
‘ ‘Section II
“The Government of the French Republic grants to the Government of the United States of America the right to conduct air transport services by one or more air carriers of United States nationality designated by the latter country on the routes, specified in Schedule II attached, which transit or serve commercially French territory ”
[11] Part of the Note of 5 April 1960 addressed by the United States Embassy in Pans to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs reads.
“After recent drscussions on this subject, it is the Embassy’s understanding that agreement has been reached on an exchange of air transit rights to accord the following advantages to air carriers of both countries.
“(1) French carriers may serve Los Angeles via Montreal (without traffic rights between Montreal and Los Angeles)
“(2) United States carriers may operate to Paris via London (without traffic rights between London and Paris) for services to and from United States west coast points.”
[12] The full text of Section III is as follows:
“One or more air carriers designated by each of the contracting Parties under the conditions provided in this Agreement will enjoy, in the territory of the other Contracting Party, rights of transit, of stops for non-traffic purposes and of commercial entry and departure for international traffic in passengers, cargo and mail at the points enumerated and on each of the routes specified in the schedules attached at all airports open to international traffic.”
[13] Section IV reads.
“It is agreed by the Contracting Parties:
“(a) That the two governments desire to foster and encourage the widest possible distribution of the benefits of air travel for the general good of mankind at the cheapest rates consistent with sound economic principles; and to stimulate international air travel as a means of promoting friendly understanding and good will among peoples and insuring as well the many indirect benefits of this new form of transportation to the common welfare of both countries
‘ ‘(b) That in the operation by the air carriers of either Contracting Party of trunk serv-
ices described in the present Annex, the interests of the air carriers of the other country shall, however, be taken into consideration so as not to affect unduly the services which the latter provide on all or part of the same route.
“(c) That the air transport services offered by the carriers of both countries should bear a close relationship to the requirements of the public for such services.
“(d) That the services provided by a designated air carrier under this Agreement and its Annex shall retain as their primary objective the provision of capacity adequate to the traffic demands between the country of which such air carrier is a national and the country of ultimate destination of the traffic; and
”—that the right of the air carriers of either country to embark and to disembark at points in the territory of the other country international traffic destined for or coming from third countries at a point or points specified in the Schedules attached, shall be applied in accordance with the general principles of orderly development to which both governments subscribe and shall be subject to the general principle that capacity shall be related
“(1) to traffic requirements between the country of origin and the countries of destination,
“(2) to the requirements of through airline operation, and
“(3) to the traffic requirements of the area through which the airline passes after taking account of local and regional services ”
711 Section VII provides:
“Changes made by either Contracting Party in the routes described in the Schedules attached except those which change the points served by these airlines in the territory of the other Contracting Party shall not be considered as modifications of the Annex. The aeronautical authorities of either Contracting Party may therefore proceed unilaterally to make such changes, provided, however, that notice of any change is given without delay to the aeronautical authorities of the other Contracting Party
“If such other aeronautical authorities find that, having regard to the principles set forth in Section IV of the present Annex, interests of their air carrier or earners are prejudiced by the carriage by the air carrier or carriers of the first Contracting Party of traffic between the territory of the second Contracting Party and the new point in the territory of a third country, the authorities of the two Contracting Parties shall consult with a view to arriving at a satisfactory agreement.” 71 The full text of Section VIII is:
“After the present Agreement comes into force, the aeronautical authorities of both Contracting Parties will exchange information as promptly as possible concerning the authorizations extended to their respective designated air carriers to render service to, through and from the territory of the other Contracting Party This will include copies of current certificates and authorizations for service on the routes which ate the subject of this Agreement and, for the future, such new authorizations as may be issued together with amendments, exemption orders and authorized service patterns ”
[16] In the present Opinion, the term will be used in that sense
[17] The background of the present dispute illustrates the differences in scope of “transshipment” The first Pan Am request clearly contemplated complex operations (combinations of services) which were to be carried out under the cover of a “transshipment” in London (letter of 5 October 1977); the request of 20 February 1978 referred to a “transshipment” on the sole ground of a “lack of equipment owing to the delay in Boeing deliveries”
[18] In particular by the wording of Section IV (rf) of the Annex to the Agreement and by the inclusion, among the conditions applicable to “transshipment” in the territory of the Contracting Parties, of the requirement that “the long-range characteristics of the operation” may not be altered; this constitutes an addition to the requirement that, “the standards set forth in this Agreement and its Annex and particularly Section VI of this Annex” must be respected.
[19] In fact, there is no need here to define the scope of the provisions of Section VI of the Annex to the Agreement, for Question (A) refers to changes of gauge in third countries onJy; I wish to emphasize, however, that I do not accept the interpretation of the principles of the Agreement as given in the Award; nor do I accept the meaning attributed by the Award to the respect of the “long-range characteristics of the operation”.
[20] From the documentation submitted to the Tribunal, it would appear that in their negotiations, the Parties dealt with change of gauge on only one occasion, in connexion with change of gauge in the territory of the Contracting Parties (Minutes of the negotiations of 20 July-5 August 1959), the Minutes clearly reflect France’s opposition to changes of gauge in cases where one aircraft would be replaced by several.
“” Texle soumis (toumi) pai le Department d’Etat des Etats-Unis d’Amerique
[22] Accord relatif aux services aeriens conclu entre la France et les Etats-Unis le 27 mars 1946, modifie, en ce qui concerne son article X, par un Echange de notes du 19 mars 1951
[23] Traduction du Greffe.
[24] Une partie de eet Echange de notes est reproduite ci-dessous, p. 475, note 94.
[25] Pour le texte integral de cette disposition, voir ci-dessous, paragraphe 45.
1,5 Le texte integral du Compromis est reproduit au paragraphe 9.
[27] Pour le texte complet de [‘article X, voir plus loin, p. 468, note 90
[28] Le texte integral de la section IV est reproduit plus loin, p 476. note 96.
[29]L’article X de I’Accord, tel qu’il a ete modifie par l’Echange de notes du 19 mars 1951, est ainsi con£u:
“Sous reserve des autres drspositions du present Accord ou de son annexe, tout differend entre les Parties contractantes relatif a I’interpretation ou a l’application dudit Accord ou de son annexe qui ne pourrait etre regie par voie de negociations directes sera soumis pour avis consultatif a un tribunal arbitral de trois membres, dont un sera designe par chaque Partie contractante, tandis que le troisieme, qui ne pourra avoir la nationality d’une des Parties contractantes, sera choisi par les deux autres Chaque Partie contractante designera son arbitre dans les deux mois a compter de la remise par 1’une des Parties contractantes a l’autre d’une note diplomatique demandant [‘arbitrage d’un differend; le troisieme arbitre sera choist dans le mois qui suivra cette periode de deux mois
“Si 1’une des Parties contractantes n’a pas designe son arbitre dans le delai de deux mois ou si une entente sur le choix du troisieme arbitre ne peut etre obtenue dans le delai prevu ci-dessus, le President de la Cour de justice intemationale sera prie de proceder aux nominations necessaires en choisissant le ou les arbitres, apres consultation du President du Conseil de l’O A C I.
“Les Parties contractantes feront de leur mieux dans les limites de leurs pouvoirs legaux pour donner effet a l’avis consultatif. Les frais du tribunal arbitral seront supportes a parts egales par chaque Partie contractante.”
” Cet article a la teneur suivante:
“Lorsqu’un comportement d’un Etat a cree une situation non conforme au resultat re- quis de lui par une obligation intemationale concernant le traitement a reserver a des particuliers etrangers, personnes physiques ou morales, mais qu’il ressort de 1’obligatron que ce resultat ou un resultat equivalent peut neanmoins etre acquis par un comportement ulterieur de l’Etat. il n’y a violation de l’obligation que si les particuliers interesses ont epuise les recours internes efficaces leur etant disponsibles, sans obtenir le traitement prevu par l’obligation ou, au cas ou cela n’etait pas possible, un traitement equivalent.”
[31]Tout au long de cette Sentence, le Tribunal utilisera les termes “rupture de charge” et ‘change of gauge” pour designer tout changement de dimension d’appareil.
w Les sections I et II de l’Annexe ont la teneur suivante:
‘ ‘Section I
“Le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d’Amerique accorde au Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise le droit de faire assurer, par une ou plusieurs entreprises frangaises de transport aerien designees par lui, des services aeriens sur les lignes mentionnees au tableau I ci-annexe qui traversent ou desservent le territoire des Etats-Unis d’Amerique.”
“Section II
“Le Gouvernement de la Republique frangaise accorde au Gouvernement des Etats- Unis d’Amerique le droit de faire assurer, par une ou plusieurs entreprises de transport aerien des Etats-Unis designees par lui, des services aeriens sur les lignes mentionnees au tableau II ci-annexe qui traversent ou desservent le territoire frangais ”
9d Voici une partie du texte de la Note adressee le 5 avril 1960 par 1’Ambassade des Etats- Unis a Paris au Ministeie frangais des Affaires etrangeres:
“A la suite des entretiens recents a ce sujet, 1’Ambassade considere qu’un Accord a ete obtenu sur Techange de droits de trafic en matiere aerienne qui accorde les avantages suivants aux aeronefs des deux pays:
“1) Les avions frangais sont autonses a desservir Los Angeles via Montreal (sans droits de trafic entre Montreal et Los Angeles)
“2) Les avions des Etats-Unis sont autorises a desservir Paris via Londres (sans droits de trafic entre Londres et Paris) sui les lignes qu’ils exploitent a partir de ou a destination de la cote occidentale des Etats-Unis.”
[34] Le texte complet de la section III est le suivant:
“L’entreprise ou les entreprises de transport aerien designees par chacune des Parties Contractantes dans les conditions fixees a l’Accord jouiront dans le territoire de I’autre Partie Contractante, aux points enumetes et sur chaque itineraire decrit aux tableaux ci- annexes, du droit de transit, du droit d’escales pour raisons non commerciales et du droit de debarquer et d’embarquer en trafic international des passagers, du courrier et des mar- chandises sur tout aeioport ouvert au trafic international ”
[35] La section IV a la teneur suivante:
“II est entendu entre les Parties Contractantes:
“a) que les deux Gouvemements desirent provoquer et encourager la plus large distribution possible des avantages procures par les voyages aeriens pour le bien general de l’humanite, aux plus bas tarifs compatibles avec de sains principes economiques; et stimu- Ier les voyages aeriens internationaux comme moyen de promouvoir une entente amicale et une bonne volonte commune entre les peuples, et assurer en meme temps les nombreux bienfaits indirects de ce nouveau mode de transport pour le bien-etre commun des deux pays,
“b) que, dans I’exploitation par les entreprises de chacun des deux pays des services long-courriers mentionnes a la presente Annexe, les interets des entreprises de l’autre pays seront toutefois pris en consideration, afin que ne soient pas indument affectes les services que ces demieres assureraient sur tout ou partie des memes parcours;
“c) que les services assures par les entreprises des deux pays devront correspondre aux besoins du public en matiere de transport aerien;
“d) que lesdits services long-courriers auront pour objet essentiel d’offrir une capacite correspondant a la demande de trafic entre le pays auquel ressortit I’entreprise et le pays desservi en demier lieu; et
“<?) que le droit pour les entreprises de chacun des deux pays d’embarquer et de debarquer sur le territorre de l’autre pays, aux points et sur les itineraires specifies aux tableaux ci-annexes, du trafic international a destination ou en provenance de pays tiers sera exerce conformement aux principes generaux de developpement ordonne affirmes par les deux Gouvemements, et dans des conditions telles que la capacite soit adaptee. “1) A la demande de trafic entre le pays d’ongine et les pays de destination; “2) Aux exigences de I’exploitation des services long-courriers; et “3) A la demande de trafic dans les regions traversees, compte tenu des services lo- caux et regionaux.”
[36] Voici le texte complet de la section VIII:
“A partir de 1’entree en vigueur du present Accord, les autorites aeronautiques des deux Parties Contractantes devront se communiquer aussi rapidement que possible les informations concernant les autorisations donnees a leur ou leurs propres entreprises designees pour exploiter les lignes mentionnees aux tableaux ci-annexes ou des fractions desdites lignes. Ces informations comporteront notamment copie des autorisations accordees, de leurs modifications eventuelles ainsi que tous documents annexes.”
“”Les evenements a I’origine du present litige illustrent ces differences de portee de la rupture de charge, Une premiere demande de la Pan Am etait explicite sur les operations complexes (combinaisons de services) qui devaient etre realisees sous le couvert de la rupture de charge a Londres (lettre du 5 octobre 1977); la demande du 20 fevrier 1978 faisait etat d’une rupture de charge motivee seulement “par un manque d’equipement du au retard des livraisons de la societe Boeing”.
[38]Pour le texte officiel frangais, cf. Revue generale de droit international public, t 69, 1965, p. 189.
[39]II en est ainsi notamment de la Sentence arbitrale du 22 decembre 1963 et de la Decision du 28 juin 1964 qui l’a interpret^ (Revue generate de droit international public, t. 69, 1965, p. 259).
[40] En fait, la portee des dispositions de la section VI de l’Annexe a I’Accord n’a pas a etre etablie ici puisque la question A ne porte que sur une rupture de charge en pays tiers; je tiens cependant a souligner que je n’accepte pas 1’interpretation des principes de I’Accord telle que la Sentence du Tribunal la propose, ni le sens qu’elle donne au respect “des caracteristiques de I’exploitation d’un service long-courrier”
1(16Des documents soumis au Tribunal, il apparaitrait que les Parties n’ont aborde le probleme de la rupture de charge dans des negociations qu’une fois et a propos de la rupture de charge sur le territoire des Parties Contractantes (Proces-verbal des negociations du 20 juillet au 5 aout 1959); on y voit formulee 1’opposition frangaise a des ruptures de charge avec substitution de plusieurs appareils a un seul